The Effect of Digital Game-Based and Different Education Programs on Phonological Awareness Skills of 60-72 Months-Old Children

Abstract

This study examines the effects of digital game-based and different educational programs on the phonological awareness skills of 60-72-month-old children. The study group of the research consists of 60-72-month-old children studying in kindergartens affiliated with primary schools. The study group was divided into three experimental groups and one control group. There were 22 children in experimental group 1, 16 in experimental group 2, 17 in experimental group 3, and 17 in the control group, totaling 72 children. In the study, a phonological awareness education program was applied to experimental group 1, a digital game-supported phonological awareness education program was applied to experimental group 2, a digital game-based phonological awareness education program was applied to experimental group 3, and no intervention was applied to the control group. A quasi-experimental design was used as the research model. The Study used the Early Literacy Skills Assessment Tool (ELSA) and the Early Literacy Test for Preschoolers (ELTKC) as data collection tools. A pre-test was administered to the study and control groups, and after the pre-test, educational programs were applied to the experimental groups for ten weeks. After the educational programs were implemented, a post-test was administered to the experimental and control groups, and a retention test was administered to the experimental groups. According to the results of the study, it was determined that there was a significant difference between the experimental groups and between the experimental groups and the control group.

Keywords

• phonological awareness
• digital game
• educational program
• preschool education

Kaynakça

1. Amorim, A. N., Jeon, L., Abel, Y., Felisberto, E. F., Barbosa, L. N., & Dias, N. M. (2020). Using escribo play video games to improve phonological awareness, early reading, and writing in preschool. Educational Researcher, 49(3), 188-197. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X20909824
2. Arias, M. P. (2023). Phonological Awareness Games-A Take Home Kit. Greensboro College.
3. Arnold, D. H., Chary, M., Gair, S. L., Helm, A. F., Herman, R., Kang, S., & Lokhandwala, S. (2021). A randomized controlled trial of an educational app to improve preschoolers’ emergent literacy skills. Journal of Children and Media, 15(4), 457-475. https://doi.org/10.1080/17482798.2020.1863239
4. Arnott, L. (2013). Are we allowed to blink? Young children’s leadership and ownership while mediating interactions around technologies. International Journal of Early Years Education, 21(1), 97-115. https://doi.org/10.1080/09669760.2013.772049
5. Bayraktar, V., & Temel, Z. F. (2014). Okuma yazmaya hazırlık eğitim programı’nın çocukların okuma yazma becerilerine etkisi [The effect of the program of readiness education on the skills on reading-writing skills]. Hacettepe University Journal of Education, 29(3), 08-22.
6. Becker, K. (2017). Choosing and using digital games in the classroom (pp. 175-214). Springer.
7. Beers, C. S., Beers, J. W., & Smith, J. O. (2010). A principal’s guide to literacy teaching. Guilford Press.
8. Bennett, M., & Parise, M. (2014). Computer technology: Possibilities and pitfalls. Childhood Education, 90(5), 365-369. https://doi.org/10.1080/00094056.2014.952579

9. Bentin, S., Hammer, R., & Cahan, S. (1991). The effects of aging and first grade schooling on the development of phonological awareness. Psychological science, 2(4), 271-275. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1991.tb00148.x
10. Bolduc, J. (2009). Effects of a music programme on kindergartners’ phonological awareness skills 1. International Journal of Music Education, 27(1), 37-47. https://doi.org/10.1177/0255761408099063
11. Bolduc, J., & Lefebvre, P. (2012). Using nursery rhymes to foster phonological and musical processing skills in kindergarteners. Creative Education, 3(4), 495-502. https://doi.org/10.4236/ce.2012.34075
12. Busink, R. (1997). Reading and phonological awareness: What we have learned and how we can use it. Literacy Research and Instruction, 36(3), 199-215. https://doi.org/10.1080/19388079709558239
13. Büyüköztürk, Ş. (2013). Sosyal bilimler için veri analizi el kitabı. Pegem Akademi.
14. Büyüköztürk, Ş., Kılıç-Çakmak, E., Akgün, Ö. E., Karadeniz, Ş., & Demirel, F. (2014). Bilimsel araştırma yöntemleri (Geliştirilmiş 16. Baskı). Pegem Akademi.
15. Cameron, M. (2023). The effects of a computerized intervention on kindergarten students’ reading skills [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. Mount Saint Vincent University.
16. Cardoso-Martins, C., Mesquita, T. C. L., & Ehri, L. (2011). Letter names and phonological awareness help children to learn letter–sound relations. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 109(1), 25-38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2010.12.006
17. Casalis, S., & Colé, P. (2009). On the relationship between morphological and phonological awareness: Effects of training in kindergarten and in first-grade reading. First language, 29(1), 113-142. https://doi.org/10.1177/0142723708097484
18. Castles, A., & Coltheart, M. (2004). Is there a causal link from phonological awareness to success in learning to read? Cognition, 91(1), 77-111. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0010-0277(03)00164-1
19. Çetin, A. (2019). Erken okuryazarlık eğitimi eğitimi erken okuryazarlık ve matematik hataları üzerine bilgisayar incelemesi [Investigation of the effect of early literacy skills educational program on early literacy and early mathematics skills. [Unpublished doctoral dissertation], Hacettepe University.
20. Chambers, B., Cheung, A. C., & Slavin, R. E. (2016). Literacy and language outcomes of comprehensive and developmental-constructivist approaches to early childhood education: A systematic review. Educational Research Review, 18, 88-111. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.edurev.2016.03.003
21. Check, J., & Schutt, R. K. (2012). Research methods in education. Sage Publications.
22. Christie, J. F., Enz, B., & Vukelich, C. (2011). Teaching language and literacy: Preschool through the elementary grades. Longman.
23. Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2017). Research methods in education. Routledge.
24. Da Silva, G. C., Rodrigues, R. L., Amorim, A. N., Mello, R. F., & Neto, J. R. O. (2022). Game learning analytics can unpack Escribo play effects in preschool early reading and writing. Computers and Education Open, 3, 100066. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeo.2021.100066
25. Degé, F., & Schwarzer, G. (2011). The effect of a music program on phonological awareness in preschoolers. Frontiers in Psychology, 2, 124. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2011.00124
26. De Jong, P. F. (2007). Phonological awareness and the use of phonological similarity in letter–sound learning. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 98(3), 131-152. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jecp.2007.06.003
27. Del Egido, M. G. V. (2023). The effects of pitch-focused and rhythm-focused music programs on preschool phonological awareness, alphabet knowledge, and concept of word awareness [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. The George Washington University.
28. Dinler, H., & Cevher Kalburan, N. (2021). The effect of poetry focused supportive educational program to preschool children’s phonological awareness. Kastamonu Education Journal, 29(5), 1034-1051. https://doi.org/10.24106/kefdergi.715624
29. Elimelech, A., & Aram, D. (2020). Using a digital spelling game for promoting alphabetic knowledge of preschoolers: The contribution of auditory and visual supports. Reading Research Quarterly, 55(2), 235-250. https://doi.org/10.1002/rrq.264
30. Elmonayer, R. A. (2013). Promoting phonological awareness skills of Egyptian kindergarteners through dialogic reading. Early Child Development and Care, 183(9), 1229-1241. https://doi.org/10.1080/03004430.2012.703183
31. Ferrari, L., & Addessi, A. R. (2014). A new way to play music together: The Continuator in the classroom. International Journal of Music Education, 32(2), 171-184. https://doi.org/10.1177/0255761413504706
32. Franc, B., & Subotic, V. (2015). Differences in phonological awareness of five-year-olds from Montessori and regular program preschool institutions. In U: Researching paradigms of childhood and education conference book of selected papers (2nd Symposium: Child language and culture) (pp. 12-20).
33. Goffredo, M., Bernabucci, I., Lucarelli, C., Conforto, S., Schmid, M., Nera, M. M., Lopez, L., D’Alessio, T., & Grasselli, B. (2016). Evaluation of a motion-based platform for practicing phonological awareness of preschool children. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 54(5), 595-618. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633115626881
34. Gökmen, G. S. (2007). 4; 0-6; 0 yaş (48-72 aylar) arasındaki çocukların ad-eylem kullanımları [Noun verb usage of 4;0-6;0 (the 48-72 month children) year old children]. Dil Dergisi, 137, 18-33.
35. Görgün, E. (2020). Resimli çocuk kitaplarının felsefi kavramlar bakımından incelenmesi [Unpublished master thesis]. Gazi University.
36. Goswami, U. (2003). Early phonological development and the acquisition of literacy. Dickinson, D. K., & Neuman, S. B. (Eds.). Handbook of Early Literacy Research. Guilford Press.
37. Harper, L. J. (2011). Nursery Rhyme Knowledge and Phonological Awareness in Preschool Children. Journal of Language and Literacy Education, 7(1), 65-78.
38. Haynie, W. J. (1997). Effects of anticipation of test on delayed retention learning. Journal of Technology Education, 9 (1), 20-30.
39. Hempenstall, K. (2003). Phonemic awareness: What does it mean? Education Oasis, 201.14.08.2021https://pact.tarleton.edu/TCERT/Content/Documents/Phonemic%20Awareness.pdf
40. Hillman, M., & Marshall, J. (2009). Evaluation of digital media for emergent literacy. Computers in the Schools, 26(4), 256-270. https://doi.org/10.1080/07380560903360186
41. Hogan, T. P., Catts, H. W., & Little, T. (2005). The relationship between phonological awareness and reading: Implications for the assessment of phonological awareness. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in the Schools, 36, 285–293. https://doi.org/10.1044/0161-1461(2005/029)
42. Incognito, O., & Pinto, G. (2023). Longitudinal effects of family and school context on the development on emergent literacy skills in preschoolers. Current Psychology, 42(12), 9819-9829. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-021-02274-6
43. Jadán-Guerrero, J., Ramos-Galarza, C., los Angeles Carpio-Brenes, M. D., Calle-Jimenez, T., Salvador-Ullauri, L., & Nunes, I. L. (2020). Phonological awareness intervention and basic literacy skill development with Kiteracy-PiFo. In International Conference on Applied Human Factors and Ergonomics, 319-325. Springer, Cham. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-51369-6_43
44. Justice, L. M., & Vukelich, C. (Eds.). (2008). Achieving excellence in preschool literacy instruction. Guilford Press.
45. Karaman, G., & Aytar, A. G. (2016). Erken okuryazarlık becerilerini değerlendirme aracı’nın (EOBDA) geliştirilmesi [Development of early literacy skills assessment tool (ELST)]. Mersin University Journal of the Faculty of Education, 12(2), 516-541. https://doi.org/10.17860/efd.02080
46. Kargın, T., Güldenoğlu, B., & Ergül, C. (2017). Anasınıfı çocuklarının erken okuryazarlık beceri profili: Ankara örneklemi [Early literacy profile of kindergarten children: Ankara sample]. Journal of Special Education, 18(1), 61-87. https://doi.org/10.21565/ozelegitimdergisi.299868
47. Kartal, G., & Terziyan, T. (2016). Development and evaluation of game-like phonological awareness software for kindergarteners: JerenAli. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 53(4), 519-539. https://doi.org/10.1177/0735633115608397
48. Keklik, S. (2010). Türkçede 0-6 yaş çocuklarına öğretilmesi gereken en sık kullanılan 1200 kelime. Türkiye Sosyal Araştırmalar Dergisi, 3, 1-28.
49. Keklik, S. (2011). Türkçede on bir yaşına kadar çocuklara öğretilmesi gereken, birleşim gücü yüksek ilk bin kelime [The first thousand words in turkish which can easily be combined should be taught until eleven year old children]. ODÜ Sosyal Bilimler Araştırmaları Dergisi (ODÜSOBİAD), 2(4), 80-95.
50. Kelly, C., Leitão, S., Smith-Lock, K., & Heritage, B. (2019). The effectiveness of a classroom-based phonological awareness program for 4–5-year-olds. International Journal of Speech-Language Pathology, 21(1), 101-113. https://doi.org/10.1080/17549507.2017.1400589
51. Kostelnik, M. J., Soderman, A. K., Whiren, A. P., & Rupiper, M. L. (2019). evelopmentally appropriate curriculum: Best practices in early childhood education. Pearson Education.
52. Kozminsky, L., & Kozminsky, E. (1995). The effects of early phonological awareness training on reading success. Learning and Instruction, 5(3), 187-201. https://doi.org/10.1016/0959-4752(95)00004-M
53. Lefebvre, P., Trudeau, N., & Sutton, A. (2011). Enhancing vocabulary, print awareness and phonological awareness through shared storybook reading with low-income preschoolers. Journal of Early Childhood Literacy, 11(4), 453-479. https://doi.org/10.1177/1468798411416581
54. Lenhart, J., Suggate, S. P., & Lenhard, W. (2022). Shared-reading onset and emergent literacy development. Early Education and Development, 33(4), 589-607. https://doi.org/10.1080/10409289.2021.1915651
55. Lennon, M., Pila, S., Flynn, R., & Wartella, E. A. (2022). Young children’s social and independent behavior during play with a coding app: Digital game features matter in a 1: 1 child to tablet setting. Computers & Education, 190, 104608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104608
56. Lennox, S. (2014). The potential of poetry for early literacy learning: Why, how and what? Practically Primary, 19(3), 21-24.
57. Li, Y., Chen, X., Li, H., Sheng, X., Chen, L., Richardson, U., & Lyytinen, H. (2020). A computer‐based Pinyin intervention for disadvantaged children in China: Effects on Pinyin skills, phonological awareness, and character reading. Dyslexia, 26(4), 377-393. https://doi.org/10.1002/dys.1654
58. Lim, C. T., & Chew, F. P. (2018). Using poems to increase phonological awareness among children. In Issues and Trends in Interdisciplinary Behavior and Social Science: Proceedings of the 6th International Congress on Interdisciplinary Behavior and Social Sciences (ICIBSoS 2017), July 22-23, 2017, Bali, Indonesia (p. 33). CRC Press.
59. Luna, S. M. (2021). Challenging norms in pre-kindergarten curriculum by listening to young children: Pre-service teachers’ lessons in phonological awareness. International Critical Childhood Policy Studies Journal, 8(2), 80-91.
60. Martins, M. A., & Silva, C. (2001). Letter names, phonological awareness and the phonetization of writing. European Journal of Psychology of Education, 16, 605-617.
61. McClarty, K. L., Orr, A., Frey, P. M., Dolan, R. P., Vassileva, V., & McVay, A. (2012). A literature review of gaming in education. Gaming in education, 1(1), 1-35.
62. Memoğlu-Süleymanoğlu, H. (2014a). Türkçenin sıklık sözlüğü. Hatiboğlu Yayınları.
63. Memoğlu-Süleymanoğlu, H. (2014b). Türkçenin ters sıklık sözlüğü. Hatiboğlu Yayınları.
64. Mertala, P., & Meriläinen, M. (2019). The best game in the world: Exploring young children’s digital game–related meaning-making via design activity. Global Studies of Childhood, 9(4), 275-289. https://doi.org/10.1177/2043610619867701
65. Mertens, D. M. (2019). Research and evaluation in education and psychology: Integrating diversity with quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods. Sage Publications.
66. Mihai, A., Friesen, A., Butera, G., Horn, E., Lieber, J., & Palmer, S. (2015). Teaching phonological awareness to all children through storybook reading. Young Exceptional Children, 18(4), 3-18. https://doi.org/10.1177/1096250614535221
67. Ministry of National Education [MoNE]. (2013). 36-72 aylık çocuk için okul öncesi eğitim programı. 20.05.2021 https://tegm.meb.gov.tr/dosya/okuloncesi/ooproram.pdf
68. Moritz, C., Yampolsky, S., Papadelis, G., Thomson, J., & Wolf, M. (2013). Links between early rhythm skills, musical training, and phonological awareness. Reading and Writing, 26, 739-769. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-012-9389-0
69. Morrison, T. G., & Wilcox, B. G. (2012). Developing literacy: Reading and writing to, with, and by children. Pearson Higher Ed.
70. Moyer, P. S., Bolyard, J. J., & Spikell, M. A. (2002). What are virtual manipulatives? Teaching children mathematics, 8(6), 372-377. https://doi.org/10.5951/TCM.8.6.0372
71. National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction: Reports of the subgroups. National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, National Institutes of Health.
72. Newby, P. (2010). Research methods for education. Pearson Education.
73. Nichols, W. D., Rasinski, T. V., Rupley, W. H., Kellogg, R. A., & Paige, D. D. (2018). Why Poetry for Reading Instruction? Because It Works! The Reading Teacher, 72(3), 389-397. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.1734
74. Oliva-Maza, A., Ayuso-Escuer, N., Coma-Roselló, T., & Torres-Moreno, E. F. (2021). Mystery of the Runaway Letrabytes: Inclusive Assessment of Phonological Awareness With Tangible Gamification. IEEE Revista Iberoamericana de Tecnologias del Aprendizaje, 16(4), 424-432.
75. Özen, Y., & Gül, A. (2007). Sosyal ve eğitim bilimleri araştırmalarında evren-örneklem sorunu [Population-sampling issue on social and educational research studies]. Journal of Kazım Karabekir Education Faculty, 15, 394-422.
76. Patria, L. (2023, June). Improving Students ‘Motivation in Learning Phonics through Games. In Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Advances in Humanities, Education and Language, ICEL 2022, 07–08 November 2022, Malang, Indonesia.
77. Phillips, B. M., Clancy-Menchetti, J., & Lonigan, C. J. (2008). Successful phonological awareness instruction with preschool children: Lessons from the classroom. Topics In Early Childhood Special Education, 28(1), 3-17. https://doi.org/10.1177/0271121407313813
78. Pila, S., Aladé, F., Sheehan, K. J., Lauricella, A. R., & Wartella, E. A. (2019). Learning to code via tablet applications: An evaluation of Daisy the Dinosaur and Kodable as learning tools for young children. Computers & Education, 128, 52-62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2018.09.006
79. Pogiatzi, M., Bardoutsou, I., Lavidas, K., & Komis, V. (2022). Interviewing preschool children in Greece about their usage of mobile devices at home. SN Social Sciences, 2(10), 215. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43545-022-00522-5
80. Pullen, P. C., & Justice, L. M. (2003). Enhancing phonological awareness, print awareness, and oral language skills in preschool children. Intervention in school and clinic, 39(2), 87-98. https://doi.org/10.1177/10534512030390020401
81. Puolakanaho, A., Poikkeus, A. M., Ahonen, T., Tolvanen, A., & Lyytinen, H. (2003). Assessment of three-and-a-half-year-old children's emerging phonological awareness in a computer animation context. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 36(5), 416-423. https://doi.org/10.1177/00222194030360050301
82. Redig, J. (2018). Does daily exposure through the use of nursery rhymes better support students’ phonological awareness skill development? [Unpublished Master Thesis]. Northwestern Collage, Iowa.
83. Rideout, V. (2011). Zero to eight: Children’s media use in America. Common Sense Media.
84. Rowe, M. L., Kirby, A. L., Dahbi, M., & Luk, G. (2023). Promoting language and literacy skills through music in early childhood classrooms. The Reading Teacher, 76(4), 487-496. https://doi.org/10.1002/trtr.2155
85. Ryan, R. M., Rigby, C. S., & Przybylski, A. (2006). The motivational pull of video games: A self-determination theory approach. Motivation and Emotion, 30, 344-360. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11031-006-9051-8
86. Sá, M., Sa-Couto, P., & Lousada, M. (2022). Phonological awareness digital program: a randomized controlled study. Revista de Investigación en Logopedia, 12(1). https://doi.org/10.5209/rlog.77402
87. Şahin Kamışlı, G., Mengü, G., Bayramoğlu, İ., & Kemaloğlu, Y. (2015). Konuşma odyometrisi ve çocuklar için kelime listeleri geliştirilmesi üzerine bir derleme [A review on speech audiometry and developing pediatric word list]. Türkiye Klinikleri, 8(2), 13-25.
88. Şahin, L. (2019). Okul eğitim dönemi erken dönem okur yazarlık öğretimine öğretmene yönelik bakışın incelenmesi [Yüksek lisans tezi]. Yakın Doğu Üniversitesi.
89. Saracho, O., & Spodek, B. (2002). Influences on Early Childhood Curriculum Development. Saracho, O., & Spodek, B. (Eds.). (2002). Contemporary Perspectives on Early Childhood Curriculum. IAP.
90. Savaş, M., & Turan, M. (2011). Okulöncesi altı yaş grubu öğrencilerin sahip oldukları kelime servetinin incelenmesi [Assessment of word power of age group of six students in the pre-scohool time]. Education Sciences, 6(1), 841-859.
91. Selwyn, N. (2016). Education and technology: Key issues and debates. Bloomsbury Publishing.
92. Schuele, C. M., & Boudreau, D. (2008). Phonological awareness intervention: Beyond the basics. Language, Speech, And Hearing Services in Schools, 39(1), 3-20. https://doi.org/10.1044/0161-1461(2008/002)
93. Sheridan, S., Williams, P., Sandberg, A., & Vuorinen, T. (2011). Preschool teaching in Sweden–a profession in change. Educational research, 53(4), 415-437. https://doi.org/10.1080/00131881.2011.625153
94. Shifflet, R., Mattoon, C., & Bates, A. (2020). Using tablets in a prekindergarten classroom to foster phonological awareness. International Research in Early Childhood Education, 10(1), 1-20.
95. Shuler, C. (2012). iLearn II: An analysis of the education category on apple’s app store. Joan Ganz Cooney Center.
96. Stadler, M. A., & McEvoy, M. A. (2003). The effect of text genre on parent use of joint book reading strategies to promote phonological awareness. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 18(4), 502-512. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecresq.2003.09.008
97. Stephen, C., & Plowman, L. (2014). Digital Play. In: Brooker L., Blaise M., & Edwards S. (Eds.) SAGE handbook of play and learning in early childhood. SAGE.
98. Sucena, A., Silva, A. F., & Marques, C. (2023). Reading skills promotion: Results on the impact of a preschool intervention. In Frontiers in Education, 7, 1076630.
99. Symmonds, J. M. (2020). Impact of quality shared reading experiences on the phonological awareness skills of preschoolers [Unpublished doctoral dissertation]. The William Paterson University.
100. Topbaş, S. (1996). Sesbilgisi açısından dil edimin süreci. Dilbilim Araştırmaları Dergisi, 7, 295-309.
101. Topbaş, S. (2006). Türkçe sesletim-sesbilgisi testi: Geçerlik-güvenirlik ve standardizasyon çalışması, Türk Psikoloji Dergisi, 21(58), 39-56.
102. Torgesen, J. K., & Mathes, P. G. (1998). What every teacher should know about phonological awareness. Florida Department of Education, Division of Schools and Community Education, Bureau of Instructional Support and Community Services.
103. Van der Kooy-Hofland, V. A., Bus, A. G., & Roskos, K. (2012). Effects of a brief but intensive remedial computer intervention in a sub-sample of kindergartners with early literacy delays. Reading and Writing, 25, 1479-1497. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11145-011-9328-5
104. Van Goch, M. M., Verhoeven, L., & McQueen, J. M. (2017). Trainability in lexical specificity mediates between short-term memory and both vocabulary and rhyme awareness. Learning and Individual Differences, 57, 163-169. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2017.05.008
105. Vinter, A., Bard, P., Lukowski-Duplessy, H., & Poulin-Charronnat, B. (2022). A comparison of the impact of digital games eliciting explicit and implicit learning processes in preschoolers. International Journal of Child-Computer Interaction, 34, 100534. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijcci.2022.100534
106. Weiss, Y., Yeatman, J. D., Ender, S., Gijbels, L., Loop, H., Mizrahi, J. C., Woo, B.Y., & Kuhl, P. K. (2022). Can an Online Reading Camp Teach 5-Year-Old Children to Read? Frontiers in Human Neuroscience, 52. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2022.793213
107. Xiong, Z., Liu, Q., & Huang, X. (2022). The influence of digital educational games on preschool Children’s creative thinking. Computers & Education, 189, 104578. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2022.104578
108. Yopp, H. K., & Yopp, R. H. (2000). Supporting phonemic awareness development in the classroom. The Reading Teacher, 54(2), 130-143.
109. Zevenbergen, R. (2007). Digital natives come to preschool: Implications for early childhood practice. Contemporary Issues in Early Childhood, 8(1), 19-29. https://doi.org/10.2304/ciec.2007.8.1.19