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Öğrenme Stratejileri Öğretiminin Akademik Başarı Üzerine Etkisi: Bir Meta-Analiz Çalışması

Yıl 2019, Cilt: 19 Sayı: 79, 87 - 114, 20.01.2019

Öz

Problem Durumu: Bireyin nasıl daha iyi ve kolay öğreneceğini
bilmesinin, bağımsız öğrenmenin kısacası öğrenmeyi öğrenmenin temelini
oluşturduğu ifade edilen öğrenme stratejileri, farklı araştırmacılar tarafından
tanımlanmıştır. Öğrenme stratejisi öz olarak bilgi ve becerilerin elde
edilmesini kolaylaştırmak için özel bir öğrenme durumunda birey tarafından
kullanılan zihinsel taktiklerin tümü olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Öğrenme
stratejileri ile ilgili çalışmaların büyük çoğunluğu betimsel ve ilişkisel olmakla
birlikte deneysel çalışmalar da mevcuttur. Deneysel çalışmalarda genel olarak
öğrenme stratejileri öğretiminin akademik başarıya, tutuma, üstbilişsel
farkındalığa, kalıcılığa, yürütücü biliş becerisine vs. etkisi incelenmiş ve
çalışmaların çoğunda ilgili değişkenlerde olumlu gelişmeler görüldüğü ortaya
konmuştur. Türkiye’deki alan yazında öğrenme stratejileri öğretiminin
öğrencilerin çeşitli derslerdeki akademik başarılarına etkisini belirlemek
amacıyla yapılmış çok sayıda çalışma olmasına rağmen, bu konuda yapılmış bir
meta-analiz çalışmasına rastlanmamıştır. Farklı boyutları ile ele alınan
öğrenme stratejileri ile ilgili araştırmaların birleştirilmeye, sentezlenmeye
ve değerlendirilmeye ihtiyacı vardır. Bu anlamda Türkiye kapsamında yapılan
çalışmaların sonuçlarının birleştirilerek genel yargının ortaya konması alan
yazına önemli katkılarda bulunacaktır.

Araştırmanın Amacı: Türkiye’deki alan yazında öğrenme stratejileri
öğretiminin öğrencilerin çeşitli derslerdeki akademik başarılarına etkisini belirlemek
amacıyla yapılmış çok sayıda çalışma olmasına rağmen, (bilişsel) öğrenme
stratejilerinin etkisini deneysel olarak inceleyen araştırmaları ele alan
kapsamlı bir meta analiz çalışmasına ulaşılamamıştır. Bu bağlamda bu araştırma,
Türkiye’de öğrenme stratejileri öğretiminin öğrencilerin akademik başarılarına
etkisini inceleyen 2000-2016 yılları arası deneysel çalışma sonuçlarını
meta-analiz yolu ile bir araya getirmek amacıyla yürütülmüştür.

Araştırmanın
Yöntemi:
Bu araştırmada,
öğrenme stratejileri öğretiminin öğrenci başarısı üzerindeki etkisini inceleyen
deneysel ve yarı-deneysel araştırmaların sonuçlarını bir araya getirmek
amacıyla meta-analiz yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Yapılan taramaya göre ulaşılan
toplam 1436 yayın yukarıdaki kriterlere göre tasnif edildiğinde elde kalan 352
çalışma üzerinde yoğunlaşılmıştır. YÖK Ulusal Tez Merkezi’nde özetlerinden
araştırma ölçütlerine uygun olduğu belirlenen ancak erişime açık olmayan tez
yazarlarına e-posta gönderilmiş ancak cevap alınamamıştır. Buna göre,
belirlenen ölçütler çerçevesinde öğrenme stratejilerinin öğrenci başarısı
üzerindeki etkisini deneysel olarak inceleyen lisansüstü tezler ile bilimsel
makalelerden oluşan toplam 28 çalışma araştırmaya dâhil edilmiştir. Bu 28
çalışma haricinde yeterli veri sunan ve gerekli şartları sağlayan tam metin
bildiri veya poster sunumu türünde çalışmaya rastlanılmamıştır. 
Araştırmanın geçerliği bağlamında öğrenme stratejileri
öğretiminin öğrenci başarısı üzerindeki etkisi deneysel araştırmalardan elde
edilen standartlaştırılmış verilerle ortaya koyulmaya çalışıldığı açıklanmış ve
yayın yanlılığı incelenmiştir. Ayrıca geçerliği sağlayabilmek adına, etki
büyüklüğü hesaplama ve raporlama süreçleri ayrıntılı olarak açıklanmış,
birincil çalışmalarda kullanılan ölçme araçlarının yeterli psikometrik
özellikleri taşıdıkları belirlenmiş ve çalışma Eğitim Bilimleri alanında
doktoralı üç akademisyen tarafından yürütülmüştür.

Araştırmanın
Bulguları:
Araştırmada,
belirlenen kriterler çerçevesinde meta-analize dâhil edilen araştırmalardaki
verilerin rastgele ve sabit etkiler modellerine göre etki büyüklüğü değerleri
hesaplanmıştır. Alan uzmanı olan iki araştırmacı, çalışmalarda kullanılan
öğrenme stratejilerindeki farklılığın örneklem hatasının ötesinde eğitim
kademesi, disiplin, strateji öğretim tarzı ve strateji türü bağlamında
farklılaştığını varsaydıkları için rastgele etkiler modeline karar vermiş ve
etki büyüklüğü değeri 1.21 olarak belirlenmiştir. Araştırma kapsamında eğitim
kademesi, disiplin, strateji öğretim tarzı ve strateji türüne yönelik alt grup
analizleri de yapılmış ve öğrenme stratejileri öğretiminin yalnızca disiplin
alanına göre istatistiksel olarak anlamlı şekilde farklılaştığı belirlenmiştir.
Belirlenen etkinin geçerliğine ilişkin yayın yanlılığı olmadığı yapılan
analizler ile ortaya konulmuş olup elde edilen etki değerinin geçerli olduğu
sonucuna ulaşılmıştır.

Araştırmanın
Sonuçları ve Önerileri:
Rastgele etkiler
modeline göre hesaplanan 1.21 Cohen d
değerinin eta-kare karşılığı .268’dir. Bu değer; 1641 öğreneni kapsayan 28
çalışmadan elde edilen 31 etki büyüklüğüne göre öğrenme stratejilerinin öğrenen
başarısı üzerinde % 26.8’lik olumlu bir katma değere sahip olduğunu
göstermektedir. Eldeki araştırmada ortak etki değerini belirleme analizlerine
ek olarak, bulgulardaki heterojenliğin nereden kaynaklandığını belirlemek
amacıyla eğitim düzeyi, disiplin, strateji öğretim tarzı ve strateji türüne
göre grup karşılaştırmaları da yapılmıştır. Yapılan analizler neticesinde
eğitim kademesinin (ilkokul, ortaokul, lise, üniversite) öğrenme stratejileri
öğretiminde anlamlı bir değişim meydana getirmediği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Bu
sonuç öğrenme stratejileri öğretiminin eğitimin her kademesinde etkili olduğunu
göstermekte; öğrenme stratejilerinin küçük yaşlarda öğretilmesinin daha etkili
olduğu görüşünde olan araştırmacıların görüşlerini sonraki eğitim
yaşantılarında ve öğrenmeyi öğrenmenin küçük yaşlarda kazanılmasında önemli
olduğu noktalarında doğrulamaktadır. Öğrenme stratejileri öğretiminin farklı
disiplinlerde anlamlı bir değişime neden olup olmadığına ilişkin analizler ise
öğrenme stratejileri öğretiminin öğrenci başarısını en fazla müzik eğitimi en
az pozitif bilimlerden olan Fen bilimleri alanında olumlu yönde etkilediğini
göstermiştir. Araştırma kapsamında disiplin alanlarına yönelik birincil
araştırma sayısı Yabancı dilde 9, Fen bilimlerinde 6, Sosyal bilimlerde 10,
Türkçe’de 4 ve Müzik’te 2 olarak görülmektedir. Birincil çalışma sayıları
arasındaki farkın sonuçları etkileyebileceği, bu nedenle müzik dersindeki
başarının en yüksek çıktığı düşünülebilir. Diğer yandan sözel alan olarak
sınıflanabilecek Sosyal bilimler, Yabancı dil, Türkçe alanlarında etki
büyüklüklerinin de birbirine yakın olduğu sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Yabancı dil,
Sosyal bilimler ve Türkçe alanlarının sözel, Fen bilimleri alanlarının sayısal
olduğu düşünüldüğünde öğrenme stratejilerinin sözel alanlarda daha etkili
olduğu çıkarımında bulunulabilir. Öğrenme stratejisi öğretiminin alan bağımsız,
bütünleştirilmiş veya eklektik olarak gerçekleştirilmesinin öğrenci başarısında
anlamlı bir değişim meydana getirmediği sonucuna ulaşılmıştır. Bir başka
deyişle farklı tarzlarda öğrenme stratejisi kazandırma yaklaşımları benzer
sonuçlar doğurmaktadır. Benzer şekilde çalışmalarda kullanılan öğrenme
stratejisi türünün de benzer sonuçlar doğurduğu tespit edilmiştir. Tüm bunlar
öğrenme stratejileri öğretiminin gerek derslere entegre edilerek, gerek
derslerden bağımsız gerekse her ikisinin bütünleştirildiği şekilde
öğretilebileceğini ve herhangi bir strateji türünün veya karmasının
kullanılmasının tümünün etkili sonuçlar doğurduğunu göstermektedir.













Anahtar Kelimeler: öğrenme stratejileri, akademik başarı, meta-analiz.

Kaynakça

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The Effect of Teaching “Learning Strategies” on Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis Study

Yıl 2019, Cilt: 19 Sayı: 79, 87 - 114, 20.01.2019

Öz

Purpose: This study
aimed to perform a meta-analysis of results from the experimental studies that
examined the effect of learning strategies on students’ academic achievement in
Turkey between 2000 and 2016.

Method: This study employed a meta-analysis method to combine the results of
experimental studies on the effect of teaching learning strategies on students’
academic
achievement.
Twenty-eight studies comprising of theses and peer-reviewed articles involving
an experimental analysis of the effect of learning strategies on students’ achievement
were included in this study.





Results: The
random effects model was used in the 
study and the mean effect size
value was found at large effect level (
d
= 1.21). The eta-squared calculated for Cohen’s
d of 1.21 was found to be .268. This value obtained using 31 effect
sizes from the results of 28 experimental studies conducted with 1,641 students
indicated that the learning strategies had 26.8% positive effect on students’
academic achievement.



Implications for Research and Practice: Sub-group analyses were also made in the
sub-categories (education level, discipline, strategy teaching style, and
strategy type) within the scope of the research, and it was determined that the
teaching of learning strategies differed only statistically according to the
discipline area. Several suggestions based on the research results were
presented.

Kaynakça

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  • *Aydemir, U. V. (2007). The effect of language learning strategies on the achievement of students in teaching English (Unpublished master thesis). Uludag University, Institutes of Educational Sciences, Bursa.
  • *Bas, G. (2012). The effect of teaching learning strategies on students' academic achievement, attitudes and cognitive awareness levels in English courses. Journal of Theoretical Educational Science, 5(1), 49-71.
  • *Belet, S. D. (2005). The effect of learning strategies on reading comprehension and writing skills and attitudes towards Turkish course (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Anadolu University, Institutes of Educational Sciences, Eskisehir.
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  • Bulus, M., Duru, E., Balkis, M., & Duru, S. (2011). The role of learning strategies and individual traits in predicting academic achievement of prospective teachers. Education and Science, 36(161), 186-198.
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  • *Cerci, A. (2005). The effect of learning strategies on students’ comprehension level in teaching Turkish (Unpublished master thesis). Selcuk University, Institute of Social Sciences, Konya.
  • Cesur, M. O., & Fer, S. (2011). A model explaining relationships between language learning strategies, learning styles and success in reading comprehension. Journal of Education, 41, 83-93.
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  • *Derman, A. (2002). The effect of different learning strategies used in 7th grade science classrooms on students' achievement (Unpublished master thesis). Selcuk University, Institutes of Social Sciences, Konya.
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  • de Boer, H., Donker, A. S., & van der Werf, M. P. C. (2014). Effects of the attributes of educational interventions on students’ academic performance: A meta-analysis. Review of Educational Research, 84(4), 509–545.
  • Demirel, M. (1993). Teaching learning strategies. Education and Science, 17(88), 52-59.
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  • Donker, A. S., de Boer, H., Kostons, D., van Ewijk, C. D., & van der Werf, M. P. C. (2013). Effectiveness of learning strategy instruction on academic performance: A meta-analysis. Educ. Res. Rev., 11, 1–26.
  • Duval, S., & Tweedie, R. (2000). Trim and fill: a simple funnel‐plot–based method of testing and adjusting for publication bias in meta-analysis. Biometrics, 56(2), 455–463.
  • Ellis, P. D. (2009). Thresholds for interpreting effect sizes. Retrieved March 13, 2017 from http://www.polyu.edu.hk/mm/effectsizefaqs/thresholds_for_interpreting_effect_sizes2.html
  • Erdem, A. R. (2005). Effective ways of learning: Learning strategies and teaching. Elementary Education Online, 4(1), 1–6.
  • Ergen, B. & Kanadli, S. (2017). The effect of self-regulated learning strategies on academic achievement: A meta-analysis study. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research 69, 55-74.
  • *Evcim, H. (2008). Increasing vocabulary knowledge through language learning strategies of university preparatory class students (Unpublished master thesis). Abant İzzet Baysal University, Institutes of Educational Sciences, Bolu.
  • Field, A. P., & Gillett, R. (2010). How to do a meta-analysis. British Journal of Mathematical and Statistical Psychology, 63(3), 665-694.
  • Fragkos, K. C., Tsagris, M., & Frangos, C. C. (2014). Publication bias in meta-analysis: confidence intervals for Rosenthal’s fail-safe number. International scholarly research notices, 2014.
  • Gagne, R. M. (1988). Essentials of learning for instruction. 2nd Ed., New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.
  • Ghee, T.T., Ismail, H.N., & Kabilan M.K. (2010). Language learning strategies used by MFL students based on genders and achievement groups. US-China Foreign Language, 8(1), 50- 58.
  • *Hasra, K. (2007). The effect of the teaching of learning strategies with brain based learning approach on students' reading comprehension skills (Unpublished master thesis). Mugla University, Institutes of Social Sciences, Mugla.
  • Higgins, J., & Thompson, S. G. (2002). Quantifying heterogeneity in a meta‐analysis. Statistics in medicine, 21(11), 1539-1558.
  • *Kaya, F. (2006). The effect of some learning strategies on attitudes and reading comprehension in primary school fourth grade Turkish course. Unpublished master thesis. Mustafa Kemal University, Institutes of Social Sciences, Hatay.
  • *Kaydu, M. (2004). The effect of different learning strategies used in geography courses on the success of students in secondary education 1st grade (Unpublished master thesis). Selcuk University, Institutes of Social Sciences, Konya.
  • *Keban, F. (2010). Investigation of the effects of strategy teaching in cooperative learning groups in basic physics laboratories at undergraduate level (Unpublished master thesis). Dokuz Eylul University, Institutes of Educational Sciences, İzmir.
  • *Kizilaslan-Tuncer, B. (2007). The effect of the use of learning strategies in teaching on students' academic achievements, retention levels and attitudes towards the course (Unpublished master thesis). Canakkale Onsekiz Mart University, Institutes of Social Sciences, Canakkale.
  • *Kuleli, M. (2011). The role of learning strategies in learning English grammar (Unpublished master thesis). Abant İzzet Baysal University, Institutes of Educational Sciences, Bolu.
  • *Kurum, E. Y. (2012). The impact of strategy based instruction on improving the foreign language proficiency level of the 3rd grade students at the Turkish military academy. Hacettepe University, Graduate School of Social Sciences, Ankara.
  • Lenz, B. K. (1992). Self-managed learning strategy systems for children and youth. School Psychology Review, 21(2), 211-228.
  • Levin, J. R. (1986). Four cognitive principles of learning-strategy instruction. Educational Psychologist, 21, 3-17.
  • Lipsey, M. W. & Wilson, D. B. (2001). Practical meta-analysis. Applied Social Research Methods Series (Vol. 49). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage publications.
  • Littell, J. H., Corcoran, J., & Pillai, V. (2008). Systematic reviews and meta-analysis. Oxford University Press.
  • Mayer, R. E. (1980). Elaboration techniques that increase the meaningfulness of technical text: An experimental test of the learning strategy hypothesis. Journal of Educational Psychology, 72(6), 770-784. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.72.6.770
  • *Meydan, A. (2010). The effect of “learning to learn strategy” on the student’s learning and permanency of 4th grade unit “the environment we live”. Selcuk University Journal of Social Sciences Institute, 23, 149-157.
  • MoNE (2018). Primary and Secondary School Mathematics Curriculum (Grades 1-8), Ankara.
  • MoNE Media Briefing. (2017). On Renewal and Change in Curriculum. https://ttkb.meb.gov.tr/meb_iys_dosyalar/2017_07/18160003_basin_aciklamasi-program.pdf
  • Ning, K. H., & Downing, K. (2011). The interrelationship between student learning experience and study behaviour. Higher Education Research and Development, 30(6), 765-778.
  • O’Malley, J.M., & Chamot, A.U. (1990) Learning strategies in second language acquisition. Cambridge: University Press
  • Oxford, R.L. (1990) Language learning strategies: What every teacher should know. Boston: Heinle and Heinle.
  • Ozer, B. (17-18 November, 2003). Teachers' new task: learning to learn. Presented in Learning to Learn Activities. ODTU Culture and Convention Center , Ankara.
  • Paris, S.G., Cross, D.R., & Lipson, M.Y. (1984). Informed strategies for learning: A program to improve children’s reading awareness and comprehension. Journal of Educational Psychology, 76(6), 1239-1252.
  • Pintrich, P. R. (1999). The role of motivation in promoting and sustaining selfregulated learning. International Journal of Educational Research, 31, 459–470.
  • Ried, K. (2006). Interpreting and understanding meta-analysis graphs: a practical guide. Retrieved March 28, 2017 from https://dspaceprd01.services.adelaide.edu.au/dspace/bitstream/2440/43554/1/hdl_43554.pdf
  • Rosenthal, R. (1979). The file drawer problem and tolerance for null results. Psychological Bulletin, 86(3), 638-664.
  • Rothstein, H. R., Sutton, A. J., & Borenstein, M. (Eds.). (2005). Publication bias in meta-analysis: Prevention, assessment and adjustments. West Sussex: John Wiley and Sons.
  • Saracaloglu, A. S., & Karasakaloglu, N. (2011). An investigation of prospective teachers’ reading comprehension levels and study and learning strategies related to some variables. Education and Science, 36(161), 98-115
  • Schmitt, N. (1997). Vocabulary learning strategies. Vocabulary: Description, acquisition and pedagogy, 199227.
  • Senemoglu, N. (2001). Development, learning and teaching (3rd Ed.). Ankara: Gazi Bookstore.
  • *Serce, H. (2013). The effects of teaching vocabulary learning strategies on vocabulary learning and strategy use (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Necmettin Erbakan University, Institutes of Educational Sciences, Konya.
  • Somuncuoglu, Y., & Yildirim, A. (1998). Learning strategies: Theoretical dimensions, research findings and results Science and Education, 22(110), 31-39.
  • Sonmez, V. (2007). Teaching principles and methods. Ankara: Ani Publishing.
  • *Tasdemir, A., & Tay, B. (2007). The effects of students’ using learning strategies on science achievement in science teaching. Uludag University Faculty of Education Journal, 20(1), 173-187.
  • Toffler, A. (1974). Learning for tomorrow. USA: Vintage.
  • *Tok, S. (2008). The effects of note-taking and KWL strategy on attitude and academic achievement. Hacettepe University Journal of Education, (34), 244-253.
  • Tunca, N., & Alkin-Sahin, S. (2014). The relationship between pre-service teachers' cognitive (metacognitive) learning strategies and academic self-efficacy beliefs. Anadolu International Journal of Educational Sciences, 4(1), 47-56.
  • *Uraz, B. (2004). The relationship between learning strategy choice in reading comprehension and academic success. Unpublished master thesis. Gazi University, Institutes of Educational Sciences, Ankara.
  • Ustun, U., & Eryilmaz, A. (2014). A research methodology to conduct effective research syntheses: Meta-analysis. Education and Science, 39(174).
  • *Uysal, I. (2006). The effect of learning strategies in social sciences lesson on students' level of understanding and interpretation (Unpublished master thesis). Selcuk University, Institutes of Social Sciences, Konya.
  • Valentine, J. C., & Cooper, H. (2008). A systematic and transparent approach for assessing the methodological quality of intervention effectiveness research: The Study Design and Implementation Assessment Device (Study DIAD). Psychological Methods, 13(2), 130-149.
  • Valentine, J. C., Pigott, T. D., & Rothstein, H. R. (2010). How many studies do you need? A primer on statistical power for meta-analysis. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 35(2), 215-247.
  • Weinstein, C.E., & MacDonald, J.D. (1986). Why does a school psychologist need to know about learning strategies?. Journal of School Psychology, 24(3), 257-265.
  • Weinstein, C.E., & Mayer, R.E. (1986). The teaching of learning strategies. In M. Wittrock (Ed.), Handbook of Research on Teaching (315-327), New York: MacMillan.
  • Weinstein, C.E., Ridley, D.S., Dahl, T., & Weber, E.S. (1988/1989). Helping students develop strategies for effective learning. Educational Leadership, 46(4), 17-19.
  • *Yildiz, N. (2003). The effect of learning strategies that are provided to students in the 5th grade science lesson on their academic achievements and retention levels. (Unpublished master thesis). Anadolu University, Institutes of Educational Sciences, Eskisehir.
  • *Yokus, H. (2009). The effect of activities related to the use of learning strategies in piano education on performance achievement and metacognitive awareness (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Marmara University, Institutes of Educational Sciences, Istanbul.
Toplam 84 adet kaynakça vardır.

Ayrıntılar

Birincil Dil İngilizce
Bölüm Makaleler
Yazarlar

İbrahim Yıldırım

Sevilay Cırak-kurt

Sedat Sen

Yayımlanma Tarihi 20 Ocak 2019
Yayımlandığı Sayı Yıl 2019 Cilt: 19 Sayı: 79

Kaynak Göster

APA Yıldırım, İ., Cırak-kurt, S., & Sen, S. (2019). The Effect of Teaching “Learning Strategies” on Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis Study. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 19(79), 87-114.
AMA Yıldırım İ, Cırak-kurt S, Sen S. The Effect of Teaching “Learning Strategies” on Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis Study. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research. Ocak 2019;19(79):87-114.
Chicago Yıldırım, İbrahim, Sevilay Cırak-kurt, ve Sedat Sen. “The Effect of Teaching ‘Learning Strategies’ on Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis Study”. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research 19, sy. 79 (Ocak 2019): 87-114.
EndNote Yıldırım İ, Cırak-kurt S, Sen S (01 Ocak 2019) The Effect of Teaching “Learning Strategies” on Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis Study. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research 19 79 87–114.
IEEE İ. Yıldırım, S. Cırak-kurt, ve S. Sen, “The Effect of Teaching ‘Learning Strategies’ on Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis Study”, Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, c. 19, sy. 79, ss. 87–114, 2019.
ISNAD Yıldırım, İbrahim vd. “The Effect of Teaching ‘Learning Strategies’ on Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis Study”. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research 19/79 (Ocak 2019), 87-114.
JAMA Yıldırım İ, Cırak-kurt S, Sen S. The Effect of Teaching “Learning Strategies” on Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis Study. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research. 2019;19:87–114.
MLA Yıldırım, İbrahim vd. “The Effect of Teaching ‘Learning Strategies’ on Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis Study”. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, c. 19, sy. 79, 2019, ss. 87-114.
Vancouver Yıldırım İ, Cırak-kurt S, Sen S. The Effect of Teaching “Learning Strategies” on Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analysis Study. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research. 2019;19(79):87-114.