Sources, Production and Food Applications of Prebiotic Oligosaccharides

Abstract

Oligosaccharides have been extensively used for different purposes such as drug supplement, weight controlling agent and dietary fiber in pharmacy and as sweetener, humectant and bulking agent in food industry. Recently, revelation of the fact that oligosaccharides having prebiotic properties make an important contribution to the host flora in intestines, has called the attention of functional food researchers to this topic. In this review, the importance, the resources, obtainment methods and the potential use of oligosaccharides constituting the majority of prebiotics in functional foods were mentioned. 

Keywords

• Oligosaccharides,resources,obtainment methods,functional foods

Prebiyotik Oligosakkaritlerin Kaynakları, Üretimleri ve Gıda Uygulamaları

Öz

Oligosakkaritler, uzun yıllardır eczacılıkta ilaç takviyesi, kilo kontrol ajanı ve diyet lifi olarak; gıda endüstrisinde ise tatlandırıcı, nem tutucu ve kabartıcı ajan gibi farklı amaçlar için kullanılmaktadır. Son yıllarda prebiyotik özelliğe sahip oligosakkaritlerin, bağırsak florasında bulunan konakçılar için önemli katkılar sağladığının ortaya konması, fonksiyonel gıda araştırmacılarının dikkatlerini bu
konuya çekmiştir. Bu derlemede prebiyotik bileşiklerin büyük bir bölümünü oluşturan oligosakkaritlerin önemi, bulunduğu kaynaklar, elde ediliş yöntemleri ve fonksiyonel gıdalarda kullanım potansiyeli vurgulanmıştır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• oligosakkaritler,kaynakları,elde ediliş yöntemleri,fonksiyonel gıdalar

Kaynakça

1. Aachary, A. A., & Prapulla, S. G. (2009). Value addition to spent osmotic sugar solution (SOS) by enzymatic conversion to fructooligosaccharides (FOS), a low calorie prebiotic. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 10(2), 284-288. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ifset.2008.11.013.
2. Al-Sheraji, S. H., Ismail, A., Manap, M. Y., Mustafa, S., Yusof, R. M., & Hassan, F. A. (2013). Prebiotics as functional foods: A review. Journal of Functional Foods, 5(4), 1542-1553.
3. Andersson, H., Asp, N. G., Bruce, Å., Roos, S., Wadström, T., & Wold, A. E. (2001). Health effects of probiotics and prebiotics a literature review on human studies. Food & Nutrition Research, 45, 58-75.
4. Balthazar, C. F., Silva, H. L. A., Vieira, A. H., Neto, R. P. C., Cappato, L. P., Coimbra, P. T., Moraes, J., Andrade, M. M., Calado, V. M. A., Granato, D., Freitas, M. Q., Tavares, M. I. B., Raices, R. S. L., Silva, M. C., & Cruz, A. G (2017). Assessing the effects of different prebiotic dietary oligosaccharides in sheep milk ice cream. Food Research International, 91, 38-46.
5. Bewley, J. D., & Black, M. (1994). Seeds. In Seeds (pp. 1-33). Springer Us.
6. Bindels, L. B., Delzenne, N. M., Cani, P. D., & Walter, J. (2015). Towards a more comprehensive concept for prebiotics. Nature Reviews Gastroenterology & Hepatology, 12(5), 303-310.
7. Black, B. A., Yan, Y., Galle, S., Hu, Y., Curtis, J. M., & Gänzle, M. G. (2014). Characterization of novel galactosylated chitin-oligosaccharides and chitosan-oligosaccharides. International Dairy Journal, 39(2), 330-335.
8. Blibech, M., Chaari, F., Bhiri, F., Dammak, I., Ghorbel, R. E., & Chaabouni, S. E. (2011). Production of manno-oligosaccharides from locust bean gum using immobilized Penicillium occitanis mannanase. Journal of Molecular Catalysis B: Enzymatic, 73(1), 111-115.

9. Borges, V. C. (1997). Oligassacarideos x Fibras Alimentares. Revista Brasileira de Nutricao Clinica, 12(2), 161-164.
10. Bornet, F. R. J., Brouns, F., Tashiro, Y., & Duviller, V. (2002). Nutritional aspect of short-chain fructooligosaccharieds: Natural occurrence, chemistry, physiology and health implications. Digestive and Liver Disease, 34, S111–S120.
11. Bouhnik, Y., Flourie, B., D’Agay-Abensour, L., Pochart, P., Gramet, G., Durand, M. & Rambaud, J.C. (1997). Administration of transgalacto-oligosaccha-rides increases faecal bifidobacteria and modifies colonic fermentation me-tabolism in healthy humans. Journal of Nutrition, 127, 444–448.
12. Brannon, C. (2003). Prebiotics: feeding friendly bacteria. Today’s Dietitian, 14, 123-128.
13. Carabin, I. G., & Flamm, W. G. (1999). Evaluation of safety of inulin and oligofructose as dietary fiber. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 30(3), 268-282.
14. Carvalho, E. A., dos Santos Góes, L. M., Uetanabaro, A. P. T., da Silva, E. G. P., Rodrigues, L. B., Pirovani, C. P., & da Costa, A. M. (2017). Thermoresistant xylanases from Trichoderma stromaticum: Application in bread making and manufacturing xylo-oligosaccharides. Food Chemistry, 221, 1499-1506.
15. Cho, S. K., Eom, H. J., Moon, J. S., Lim, S. B., Kim, Y. K., Lee, K. W., & Han, N. S. (2014). An improved process of isomaltooligosaccharide production in kimchi involving the addition of a Leuconostoc starter and sugars. International journal of food microbiology, 170, 61-64.
16. Cho, S. S., & Finocchiaro, T. (Eds.). (2009). Handbook of prebiotics and probiotics ingredients: health benefits and food applications. CRC Press.
17. Chung, Y. C., Hsu, C. K., Ko, C. Y., & Chan, Y. C. (2007). Dietary intake of xylooligosaccharides improves the intestinal microbiota, fecal moisture, and pH value in the elderly. Nutrition Research, 27(12), 756-761.
18. Cloetens, L., Swennen, K., De Preter, V., Broekaert, W. F., Courtin, C. M., Delcour, J. A., Rutgeerts, P., & Verbeke, K. (2008). Effect of arabinoxylo-oligosaccharides on proximal gastrointestinal motility and digestion in healthy volunteers. e-SPEN, the European e-Journal of Clinical Nutrition and Metabolism, 3(5), e220-e225.
19. Cmelik, R., & Chmelik, J. (2010). Structural analysis and differentiation of reducing and nonreducing neutral model starch oligosaccharides by negative-ion electrospray ionization ion-trap mass spectrometry. International Journal of Mass Spectrometry, 291(1), 33-40.
20. Costabile, A., Kolida, S., Klinder, A., Gietl, E., Bäuerlein, M., Frohberg, C., Landschutze, V., & Gibson, G. R. (2010). A double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study to establish the bifidogenic effect of a very-long-chain inulin extracted from globe artichoke (Cynara scolymus) in healthy human subjects. British journal of nutrition, 104(07), 1007-1017.
21. Crittenden, R. G., & Playne, M. J. (1996). Production, properties and applications of food-grade oligosaccharides. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 7, 353–361.
22. Cummings, J. H., Macfarlane, G. T., & Englyst, H. N. (2001). Prebiotic digestion and fermentation. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 73, 415S–420S.
23. Dias, L. G., Veloso, A.C.A., Correia, D. M., Rocha, O., Torres, D., Rocha, I., Rodriguesb, L.R., & Peres, A. M. (2009). UV spectrophotometry method for the monitoring of galacto-oligosaccharides production. Food Chemistry, 113(1), 246-252.
24. Eeckhaut, V., Van Immerseel, F., Dewulf, J., Pasmans, F., Haesebrouck, F., Ducatelle, R., Courtin, C. M., Delcour, J. A., & Broekaert, W. F. (2008). Arabinoxylooligosaccharides from wheat bran inhibit Salmonella colonization in broiler chickens. Poultry Science, 87, 2329–2334.
25. Fei, B. B., Ling, L., Hua, C., & Ren, S. Y. (2014). Effects of soybean oligosaccharides on antioxidant enzyme activities and insulin resistance in pregnant women with gestational diabetes mellitus. Food chemistry, 158, 429-432.
26. Freitas, D. D. G. C., & Jackix, M. D. N. H. (2004). Caracterização físico-química e aceitação sensorial de bebida funcional adicionada de frutoligossacarídeo e fibra solúvel. Bol. Centro Pesqui. Process. Aliment, 22(2), 355-374.
27. Fujikawa , S., Okazaki, M., & Matsumoto, N. (1991). Effect of xylooligosaccharide on growth of intestinal bacteria and putrefaction products. Nippon Eiyo Shokuryo Gakkaishi 44 (1), 37-40.
28. Fujimoto, Y., Hattori, T., Uno, S., Murata, T., & Usui, T. (2009). Enzymatic synthesis of gentiooligosaccharides by transglycosylation with β-glycosidases from Penicillium multicolor. Carbohydrate research, 344(8), 972-978.
29. Gangola, M. P., Jaiswal, S., Kannan, U., Gaur, P. M., Båga, M., & Chibbar, R. N. (2016). Galactinol synthase enzyme activity influences raffinose family oligosaccharides (RFO) accumulation in developing chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) seeds. Phytochemistry, 125, 88-98.
30. Gibson, G. R. (2004). Fibre and effects on probiotics (the prebiotic concept). Clinical Nutrition Supplements, 1(2), 25-31.
31. Gibson, G. R., Willis, C. L., & Loo, J. V. (1994). Non-digestible oligosaccharides and bifidobacteria-implications for health. International Sugar Journal (United Kingdom).
32. Gómez, B., Gullón, B., Remoroza, C., Schols, H. A., Parajó, J. C., & Alonso, J. L. (2014). Purification, characterization, and prebiotic properties of pectic oligosaccharides from orange peel wastes. Journal of agricultural and food chemistry, 62(40), 9769-9782.
33. Gosling, A., Stevens, G.W., Barber, A.R., Kentish, S.E., Gras, S.L., (2010). Recent advances refining galactooligosaccharide production from lactose. Food Chemistry 121: 307–318.
34. Grootaert, C., Delcour, J. A., Courtin, C. M., Broekaert, W. F., Verstraete,W., & Van deWiele, T. (2007). Microbial metabolism and prebiotic potency of arabinoxylan oligosaccharides in the human intestine. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 18, 64–71.
35. Gulewicz, P., Ciesiołka, D., Frias, J., Vidal-Valverde, C., Frejnagel, S., Trojanowska, K., & Gulewicz, K. (2003). Simple method of isolation and purification of Tˇ -galactosides from legumes. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 48, 3120–3123.
36. Hauly, M. C. O., & Moscatto, J. A. (2002). Inulin and oligofructosis: a review about functional properties, prebiotic effects and importance for food industry. Semina: Ciencias Exatas e Tecnologicas, 23(1), 105-118.
37. Hopkins, M. J., & Macfarlane, G. T. (2003). Nondigestible oligosaccharides enhance bacterial colonization resistance against Clostridium difficile in vitro. Applied and environmental microbiology, 69(4), 1920-1927.
38. Hu, B., Gong, Q., Wang, Y., Ma, Y., Li, J., & Yu, W. (2006). Prebiotic effects of neoagaro-oligosaccharides prepared by enzymatic hydrolysis of agarose. Anaerobe, 12(5), 260-266.
39. Huanhuan, C., Xia, Z., Xiaohong, L., & Guangli, Y. (2015). Application of Electrospray Tandem Mass Spectrometry in Sequence Analysis of Oligosaccharides. CHEMICAL JOURNAL OF CHINESE UNIVERSITIES-CHINESE, 36(1), 1-8.
40. Ishwarya, S. P., & Prabhasankar, P. (2013). Fructooligosaccharide–Retention during baking and its influence on biscuit quality. Food Bioscience, 4, 68-80.
41. Jaskari, J., Kontula, P., Siitonen, A., Jousimies-Somer, H., Mattila-Sandholm, T., & Poutanen, K. (1998). Oat β-glucan and xylan hydrolysates as selective substrates for Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus strains. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology, 49(2), 175-181.
42. Jian, H. L., Zhu, L. W., Zhang, W. M., Sun, D. F., & Jiang, J. X. (2013). Enzymatic production and characterization of manno-oligosaccharides from Gleditsia sinensis galactomannan gum. International journal of biological macromolecules, 55, 282-288.
43. Jiang, J., Chen, S., Ren, F., Luo, Z., & Zeng, S. S. (2007). Yak milk casein as a functional ingredient: preparation and identification of angiotensin-I-converting enzyme inhibitory peptides. Journal of Dairy Research, 74(01), 18-25.
44. Johansen, H. N., Glitso, V., & Knudsen, K. E. B. (1996). Influence of extraction solvent and temperature on the quantitative determination of oligosaccharides from plant materials by high-performance liquid chromatography. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 44, 1470–1474.
45. Kamasaka, H., Uchida, M., Kusaka, K., Yoshikawa, K., Yamamoto, K., Okada, S., & Ichikawa, T. (1995). Inhibitory effect of phosphorylated oligosaccharides prepared from potato starch on the formation of calcium phosphate. Bioscience, biotechnology, and biochemistry, 59(8), 1412-1416.
46. Kapoor, S., & Dharmesh, S. M. (2017). Pectic Oligosaccharide from tomato exhibiting anticancer potential on a gastric cancer cell line: Structure-function relationship. Carbohydrate Polymers, 160, 52-61.
47. Kawase, M., Pilgrim, A., Araki, T., & Hashimoto, K. (2001). Lactosucrose production using a simulated moving bed reactor. Chemical Engineering Science, 56, 453–458.
48. Kolida, S., & Gibson, G. R. (2007). Prebiotic capacity of inulin-type fructans. The Journal of nutrition, 137(11), 2503S-2506S.
49. Kolida, S., Meyer, D., & Gibson, G. R. (2007). A double-blind placebo-controlled study to establish the bifidogenic dose of inulin in healthy humans. European journal of clinical nutrition, 61(10), 1189-1195.
50. Kumar, S., Teotia, U. V. S., & Aswal, A. P. S. (2013). Antihypertensive property of yak milk caseinates hydrolyzed with different proteases. Int. J. Livest. Res, 3(2), 130-134.
51. Kunová, G., Rada, V., Lisova, I., Ročková, S., & Vlková, E. (2011). In vitro fermentability of prebiotic oligosaccharides by lactobacilli. Czech J Food Sci, 29(1), S49-S54.
52. Leiva, M. H. L., & Guzman, M. (1995). Formation of oligosaccharides during enzymic hydrolysis of milk whey permeates. Process Biochemistry, 30(8), 757-762.
53. Li, J., Han, F., Lu, X., Fu, X., Ma, C., Chu, Y., & Yu, W. (2007). A simple method of preparing diverse neoagaro-oligosaccharides with β-agarase. Carbohydrate research, 342(8), 1030-1033.
54. Li, P. J., Xia, J. L., Nie, Z. Y., & Shan, Y. (2016). Pectic oligosaccharides hydrolyzed from orange peel by fungal multi-enzyme complexes and their prebiotic and antibacterial potentials. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 69, 203-210.
55. Li, S., Li, T., Zhu, R., Wang, N., Song, Y., Wang, S., & Guo, M. (2013). Antibacterial action of haw pectic oligosaccharides. International Journal of Food Properties, 16(3), 706-712.
56. Liu, J., Li, H., Wu, J., Xie, F., Zhang, J., & Wang, Z. (2017). Determination of phosphoryl‐oligosaccharides obtained from Canna edulis Ker starch. Starch‐Stärke, 69(1-2).
57. Lopes, S. M. S., Krausová, G., Carneiro, J. W. P., Gonçalves, J. E., Gonçalves, R. A. C., & de Oliveira, A. J. B. (2017). A new natural source for obtainment of inulin and fructo-oligosaccharides from industrial waste of Stevia rebaudiana Bertoni. Food Chemistry. (225), 15 June 2017, Pages 154–161.
58. Macfarlane, G. T., & Cummings, J. H. (1999). Probiotics and prebiotics: can regulating the activities of intestinal bacteria benefit health?. Western journal of medicine, 171(3), 187.
59. Mahoney, R. R. (1998). Galactosyl-oligosaccharide formation during lactose hydrolysis: a review. Food chemistry, 63(2), 147-154.
60. Makelainen, H., Forssten, S., Saarinen, M., Stowell, J., Rautonen, N., & Ouwehand, A. (2009). Xylo-oligosaccharides enhance the growth of bifidobacteria and Bifidobacterium lactis in a simulated colon model. Beneficial Microbes, 1(1), 81-91.
61. Manderson, K., Pinart, M., Tuohy, K. M., Grace, W. E., Hotchkiss, A. T., Widmer, W., Yadhav, M.P., Gibson, G.R, & Rastall, R. A. (2005). In vitro determination of prebiotic properties of oligosaccharides derived from an orange juice manufacturing by-product stream. Applied and Environmental Microbiology, 71(12), 8383-8389.
62. Manning, T. S., & Gibson, G. R. (2004). Prebiotics. Best Practice & Research Clinical Gastroenterology, 18(2), 287-298.
63. Matusek, A., Czukor, B., & Merész, P. (2008). Comparison of sucrose and fructo-oligosaccharides as osmotic agents in apple. Innovative Food Science & Emerging Technologies, 9(3), 365-373.
64. McBain, A.J., MacFarlane, G.T. (2001). Modulation of genotoxic enzyme activities by non-digestible oligosaccharide metabolism in in-vitro human gut bacterial ecosystems. Journal of Medicinal Microbiololgy, 50, 833–42.
65. Modler, H. W. (1994). Bifidogenic factors—sources, metabolism and applications. International Dairy Journal, 4(5), 383-407.
66. Moure, A., Gullón, P., Domínguez, H., & Parajó, J. C. (2006). Advances in the manufacture, purification and applications of xylo-oligosaccharides as food additives and nutraceuticals. Process Biochemistry, 41(9), 1913-1923.
67. Morris, C., & Morris, G. A. (2012). The effect of inulin and fructo-oligosaccharide supplementation on the textural, rheological and sensory properties of bread and their role in weight management: A review. Food chemistry, 133(2), 237-248.
68. O'Donnell, K., & Kearsley, M. (Eds.). (2012). Sweeteners and sugar alternatives in food technology. John Wiley & Sons.
69. Ojha, S., Mishra, S., & Chand, S. (2015). Production of isomalto-oligosaccharides by cell bound α-glucosidase of Microbacterium sp. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 60(1), 486-494.
70. Okada, H., Fukushi, E., Yamamori, A., Kawazoe, N., Onodera, S., Kawabata, J., & Shiomi, N. (2010). Novel fructopyranose oligosaccharides isolated from fermented beverage of plant extract. Carbohydrate research, 345(3), 414-418.
71. Oliveira, R.P.Z., Perego, P., Oliveira, M.N., Converti, A. (2011). Effect of inulin as prebiotic and synbiotic interactions between probiotics to improve fermented milk firmness. Journal of Food Engineering 107 (1) 36–40.
72. Özyurt, V. H., & Ötleş, S. (2014). Prebiyotikler: Metabolizma İçin Önemli Bir Gıda Bileşeni. Akademik Gıda 12(1) 115-123.
73. Palframan, R. J., Gibson, G. R., & Rastall, R. A. (2002). Effect of pH and dose on the growth of gut bacteria on prebiotic carbohydrates in vitro. Anaerobe, 8(5), 287-292.
74. Passos, L. M. L., & Park, Y. K. (2003). Frutooligossacarídeos: implicações na saúde humana e utilização em alimentos. Ciência Rural.
75. Patel, S., Goyal, A. (2011). Functional oligosaccharides: production, properties and applications. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology 27 (5) 1119-1128.
76. Pechsrichuang, P., Yoohat, K., & Yamabhai, M. (2013). Production of recombinant Bacillus subtilis chitosanase, suitable for biosynthesis of chitosan-oligosaccharides. Bioresource technology, 127, 407-414.
77. Phillips, G. O. (2013). Dietary fibre: A chemical category or a health ingredient?. Bioactive Carbohydrates and Dietary Fibre, 1(1), 3-9.
78. Pilgrim, A., Kawase, M., Matsuda, F., & Miura, K. (2006). Modeling of the simulated moving-bed reactor for the enzyme-catalyzed production of lactosucrose. Chemical engineering science, 61(2), 353-362.
79. Pocedicova, K., Curda, L., Misun, D., Dryakova, A., & Diblikova, L. (2010). Preparation of galacto-oligosaccharides using membrane reactor. Journal of Food Engineering, 99(4), 479-484.
80. Prenosil, J. E., Stuker, E., & Bourne, J. R. (1987). Formation of oligosaccharides during enzymatic lactose hydrolysis and their importance in a whey hydrolysis process: Part II: Experimental. Biotechnology and bioengineering, 30(9), 1026-1031.
81. Pu, J., Zhao, X., Xiao, L., & Zhao, H. (2017). Development and validation of a HILIC-ELSD method for simultaneous analysis of non-substituted and acetylated xylo-oligosaccharides. Journal of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Analysis, (139), 232–237
82. Qiang, X., YongLie, C., & QianBing, W. (2009). Health benefit application of functional oligosaccharides. Carbohydrate Polymers, 77(3), 435-441.
83. Quigley, E. M. (2010). Prebiotics and probiotics; modifying and mining the microbiota. Pharmacological research, 61(3), 213-218.
84. Raman, R., Raguram, S., Venkataraman, G., Paulson, J. C., & Sasisekharan, R. (2005). Glycomics: an integrated systems approach to structure-function relationships of glycans. Nature Methods, 2(11), 817-824.
85. Resconi, V. C., Keenan, D. F., Gough, S., Doran, L., Allen, P., Kerry, J. P., & Hamill, R. M. (2015). Response surface methodology analysis of rice starch and fructo-oligosaccharides as substitutes for phosphate and dextrose in whole muscle cooked hams. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 64(2), 946-958.
86. Resconi, V. C., Keenan, D. F., Barahona, M., Guerrero, L., Kerry, J. P., & Hamill, R. M. (2016). Rice starch and fructo-oligosaccharides as substitutes for phosphate and dextrose in whole muscle cooked hams: Sensory analysis and consumer preferences. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 66, 284-292.
87. Renuka, B., Kulkarni, S. G., Vijayanand, P., & Prapulla, S. G. (2009). Fructooligosaccharide fortification of selected fruit juice beverages: Effect on the quality characteristics. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 42(5), 1031-1033.
88. Roberfroid, M. (2002). Functional food concept and its application to prebiotics. Digestive and Liver Disease, 34, S105–S110.
89. Roberfroid, M. (2007). Prebiotics: the concept revisited. The Journal of nutrition, 137(3), 830S-837S.
90. Roberfroid, M., & Slavin, J. (2000). Nondigestible oligosaccharides. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition. 40(6), 461-480.
91. Rolim, P. M. (2015). Development of prebiotic food products and health benefits. Food Science and Technology (Campinas), 35(1), 3-10.
92. Romano, N., Tavera-Quiroz, M. J., Bertola, N., Mobili, P., Pinotti, A., & Gómez-Zavaglia, A. (2014). Edible methylcellulose-based films containing fructo-oligosaccharides as vehicles for lactic acid bacteria. Food Research International, 64, 560-566.
93. Roy, D., Daoudi, L., & Azaola, A. (2002). Optimization of galacto-oligosaccharide production by Bifidobacterium infantis RW-8120 using response surface methodology. Journal of Industrial Microbiology and Biotechnology, 29(5), 281-285.
94. Rungrassamee, W., Kingcha, Y., Srimarut, Y., Maibunkaew, S., Karoonuthaisiri, N., & Visessanguan, W. (2014). Mannooligosaccharides from copra meal improves survival of the Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) after exposure to Vibrio harveyi. Aquaculture, 434, 403-410.
95. Rustom, I. Y., Foda, M. I., & Lopez-Leiva, M. H. (1998). Formation of oligosaccharides from whey UF-permeate by enzymatic hydrolysis—analysis of factors. Food chemistry, 62(2), 141-147.
96. Saad, N., Delattre, C., Urdaci, M., Schmitter, J. M., & Bressollier, P. (2013). An overview of the last advances in probiotic and prebiotic field. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 50(1), 1-16.
97. Sako, T., Matsumoto, K., & Tanaka, R. (1999). Recent progress on research and applications of non-digestible galacto-oligosaccharides. International Dairy Journal, 9(1), 69-80.
98. Silverio, S. C., Macedo, E. A., Teixeira, J. A., & Rodrigues, L. R. (2015). Perspectives on the biotechnological production and potential applications of lactosucrose: A review. Journal of Functional Foods, 19, 74-90.
99. Singh, A. K., Ranjan, A. K., Srivastava, G., & Deepak, D. (2016). Structure elucidation of two novel yak milk oligosaccharides and their DFT studies. Journal of Molecular Structure, 1108, 87-91.
100. Slavin, J. (2013). Fiber and prebiotics: mechanisms and health benefits. Nutrients, 5(4), 1417-1435.
101. Spiegel, J. E., Rose, R., Karabell, P., Frankos, V. H., & Schmitt, D. F. (1994). Safety and benefits of fructooligosaccharides as food ingredients. Food Technology.
102. Stowell, J. (2007). Chapter 4. Calorie control and weight management. In: Mitchell H (ed) Sweeteners and sugar alternatives in food technology. Blackwell Publishing Ltd. doi: 10.1002/978047099 6003.ch4.
103. Suwa, Y., Koga, K., Fujikawa, S., Okazaki, M., Irie, T., & Nakada, T. (1999). U.S. Patent No. 5,939,309. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office.
104. Tuohy, K. M., Rouzaud, G. C. M., Bruck, W. M., & Gibson, G. R. (2005). Modulation of the human gut microflora towards improved health using prebiotics-assessment of efficacy. Current Pharmaceutical Design, 11(1), 75-90.
105. Valencia, M. S., Salgado, S. M., Andrade, S. A. C., Padilha, V. M., Livera, A. V. S., & Stamford, T. L. M. (2016). Development of creamy milk chocolate dessert added with fructo-oligosaccharide and Lactobacillus paracasei subsp. paracasei LBC 81. LWT-Food Science and Technology, 69, 104-109.
106. van Loo, J. A. (2004). Prebiotics promote good health: the basis, the potential, and the emerging evidence. Journal of clinical gastroenterology, 38, S70-S75.
107. Vazquez, M. J., Alonso, J. L., Domınguez, H., & Parajo, J. C. (2000). Xylooligosaccharides: manufacture and applications. Trends in Food Science & Technology, 11(11), 387-393.
108. Vulevic, J., Drakoularakou, A., Yaqoob, P., Tzortzis, G., & Gibson, G. R. (2008). Modulation of the fecal microflora profile and immune function by a novel transgalactooligosaccharide mixture (B-GOS) in healthy elderly volunteers. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 88, 1438–1446.
109. Wang, Y. (2009). Prebiotics: Present and future in food science and technology. Food Research International, 42(1), 8-12.
110. Weijers, C. A., Franssen, M. C., & Visser, G. M. (2008). Glycosyltransferase-catalyzed synthesis of bioactive oligosaccharides. Biotechnology advances, 26(5), 436-456.
111. Zhang, M., Cai, S., & Ma, J. (2015). Evaluation of cardio-protective effect of soybean oligosaccharides. Gene, 555(2), 329-334.
112. Zhao, Y. T., Niu, S., Huang, L. B., Wang, J. M., Yin, Z. J., Li, Q., & Li, Z. J. (2013). Synthesis of raffinose family oligosaccharides by regioselective de-O-benzylation with Co 2 (CO) 8/Et 3 SiH/CO system. Tetrahedron, 69(24), 5022-5028.
113. Zhu, Z. Y., Cui, D., Gao, H., Dong, F. Y., Liu, X. C., Liu, F., Chen, L., & Zhang, Y. M. (2016). Efficient synthesis and activity of beneficial intestinal flora of two lactulose-derived oligosaccharides. European journal of medicinal chemistry, 114, 8-13.
114. Ziemer, C. J., & Gibson, G. R. (1998). An overview of probiotics, prebiotics and synbiotics in the functional food concept: perspectives and future strategies. International Dairy Journal, 8(5), 473-479.