Dini Mercekten Gözetme: Hinduizm’de İnanca Dayalı Panoptikon Mekanizmaları Olarak Mahākumbha ve Śrāddha

Yıl 2026, Sayı: Advanced Online Publication , 61 - 78

Shreya Rathour , Bibhudatta Dash , G. Lakshmi Narasimham

https://doi.org/10.17335/sakaifd.1761285

https://izlik.org/JA47HJ59BK

Öz

Yüzyıllar boyunca dinî gelenekler, “ilahî gözetim” kavramını ahlaki çerçevelerine dâhil ederek etik davranışı şekillendirmek ve toplumsal-manevî iyiliği teşvik etmek için kullanmışlardır. Ancak “gözetleyen tanrı” fikri, inançlı bireylerin zihinleri ve eylemleri üzerinde tam bir denetim duygusu yaratmaktadır. İlahi varlıkların, ataların ruhlarının, kutsal metinlerin ve dijital dinî bildirimlerin gözetimi altında bireyler çoğu zaman derin bir sorumluluk duygusuyla birlikte sıkıntı, psikolojik stres ve dinî tarihler, inançlar ve değerlere yetişme baskısı geliştirmektedir.  Jeremy Bentham’ın “panoptikon” kavramından yararlanan bu çalışma, “İlahi Gözetim” olgusunu deneyimlerken bireyde oluşabilecek kaygı türlerini ortaya koymaktadır. Gözetim, psikoloji ve din üzerine geliştirilen kuramlardan alınan içgörüler doğrultusunda bu makale, Hinduizm’deki Mahākumbha ve Śrāddha gibi ritüel ve uygulamaların yalnızca ahlaki sorumluluk yaratmakla kalmayıp Hindu inananların zihninde psikolojik yük ve stres de oluşturduğunu incelemektedir. Çalışmanın bulguları, kutsal metinler, medya, yönetişim ve psikolojik koşullanmanın kesişen etkileri aracılığıyla Hindu inananların zihninde ilahi ve atalardan kalan hafızanın nasıl harekete geçirildiğini ortaya koymaktadır. Ayrıca araştırma, din bağlamında geleneksel gözetimden dijital aracılı gözetim biçimlerine doğru yaşanan dönüşüme de vurgu yapmaktadır.

Anahtar Kelimeler

Ruh sağlığı , Hinduizm , Dharmic Gözetim , Atasal Gözetim , Gözetim

Surveillance Through the Dharmic Gaze: Mahākumbha and Śrāddha as Mechanisms of Faith-Based Panopticon in Hinduism

https://izlik.org/JA47HJ59BK

Öz

For centuries, religious traditions have incorporated the concept of “divine surveillance” into their moral frameworks, using it to shape ethical behavior and promote social and moral well-being. However, this idea of “watching deity” creates a sense of total control over the minds and actions of faithful believers. Under the watchful eyes of divine entities, ancestral spirits, sacred scriptures, and digital religious notifications, individuals often develop a deep sense of accountability along with distress, resulting in psychological stress and a pressure to meet the religious timelines, beliefs, and values. Drawing upon Jeremy Bentham’s concept of “panopticon”, this study showcases the kind of anxiety one can be instilled with while navigating through the phenomenon of “Divine Gaze”. Taking insights from theories revolving around surveillance, psychology, and religion, this paper examines the rituals and practices of Hinduism, like Mahākumbha and Śrāddha that not only cultivate moral accountability but also impose psychological burden and stress on the minds of Hindu believers. The findings of the study reveal how divine and ancestral memory is invoked in the minds of Hindu believers through the intersecting influences of scriptures, media, governance, and psychological conditioning. Further, the research also emphasizes the shift from traditional to digitally mediated surveillance in the context of religion. 

Anahtar Kelimeler

Mental Health , Hinduism , Dharmic Gaze , Ancestral Gaze , Religious Practices , Surveillance

Kaynakça

• Al-Haraizah, Ahed et al. “The Impact of Search Engine Optimization and Website Engagement towards Customer Buying Behaviour”. Global Knowledge Memory and Communication. https://doi.org/10.1108/gkmc-06-2024-0347
• Allport, Gordon W., - J. Michael Ross. “Personal Religious Orientation and Prejudice”. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 5/4 (1967), 432–443. https://doi.org/10.1037/h0021212
• Allport, Gordon W. “Behavioral Science, Religion, and Mental Health”. Journal of Religion and Health 2/3 (1963), 187–97. http://www.jstor.org/stable/27504566
• Asafaylo, Marina P. “Man as a Debtor: Introduction to the Problem”. Opción: Revista de Ciencias Humanas y Sociales 91 (2020), 910–928.
• Balsari, Satchit. “Cloud-Based Innovations for Syndromic Surveillance”. Elsevier eBooks. 135–166, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-809528-7.00008-3
• Bareviciute, Jovile. “The Classic Concept of the Panopticon: The Aspect of Visual Communication”. Filosofija-Sociologija 21/1 (2010), 37–44.
• Benavides Franco, Alexander. “The body as ambiguous spatiality: Michel Foucault, politics and resistances of the bodies”. Daimon-Revista Internacional De Filosofia (2016), 601-610.
• Bentham, Jeremy - Božovič, Miran. The Panopticon Writings, 1995. http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA27199630
• Betlem, Hester. “Negotiating Ritual Duty in Degenerate Times: The Goddess Mathamma and the Legal Secular in Rural South India”. American Ethnologist 42/1 (February 2015), 131–143. https://doi.org/10.1111/amet.12121
• Bihārī, Gautam M. Pākṣika Gayā Śrāddha Paddhati. Bhagalpur, 1966.
• Bosmia, N. Anand et al. “Nasal Myiasis in Hinduism and Contemporary Otorhinolaryngology”. Journal of Religion and Health 56/4 (2017), 1263–1281. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-013-9817-8
• Cain, Emily R. “Tertullian’s Precarious Panopticon: A Performance of Visual Piety”. Journal of Early Christian Studies 27/4 (January 2019), 611–633. https://doi.org/10.1353/earl.2019.0053
• Clayton, Philip. “Panentheism”. In The Routledge Companion to Modern Christian Thought, 2013. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203387856
• Cole, Juan R. I. “The Baha’i Faith in America as Panopticon, 1963–1997”. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 37/2 (June 1998), 234–248. https://doi.org/10.2307/1387523
• Copeman, Jacob et al. Gurus and Media: Sound, Image, Machine, Text and the Digital. UCL Press, 2023.
• Craig, William Lane. “Wierenga No A-Theorist Either”. Faith and Philosophy 21/1 (January 2004), 105–109. https://doi.org/10.5840/faithphil200421122
• Daga, Nisha et al. “Living Under the Stare: Ethical Implications of AI Technologies in Surveillance Capitalism”. 2025 IEEE International Conference on Advanced Visual and Signal-Based Systems (AVSS), 1–6, 2025. IEEE. https://doi.org/10.1109/AVSS65446.2025.11149955
• Davis, Craig R. “Bonds of Secrecy: Law, Spirituality, and the Literature of Concealment in Early Medieval England by Benjamin A. Saltzman”. Arthuriana 31/1 (January 2021), 121–122. https://doi.org/10.1353/art.2021.0008
• Doniger, Wendy. The Hindus: An Alternative History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2010.
• Elhai, Jon D. et al. “Disrupted Daily Activities from Interruptive Smartphone Notifications: Relations with Depression and Anxiety Severity and the Mediating Role of Boredom Proneness”. Social Science Computer Review 39/1 (June 2019), 20–37. https://doi.org/10.1177/0894439319858008
• Finnane, Mark. “The Foucault Effect: Studies in Governmentality with Two Lectures by and an Interview with Michel Foucault Edited by Graham Burchell, Colin Gordon & Peter Miller Chicago: University of Chicago Press & Hemel Hempstead: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1991, x + 307 Pp”. Canadian Journal of Law and Society / Revue Canadienne Droit Et Société 7/2 (January 1992), 309–312. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0829320100002507
• Finucane, Juliana - Feener, R. Michael. Proselytizing and the Limits of Religious Pluralism in Contemporary Asia. eBook: Springer, 2013. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-4451-18-5
• Flannelly, Kevin J. et al. “Beliefs about God, Psychiatric Symptoms, and Evolutionary Psychiatry”. Journal of Religion and Health 49/2 (March 2009), 246–261. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10943-009-9244-z
• Foucault, Michel. Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison. Penguin Group (CA), 1977.
• Foucault, Michel. Foucault Live: Collected Interviews, 1961–1984. New York: MIT Press, 1996.
• Galek, Kathleen et al. “Religion, Meaning and Purpose, and Mental Health”. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality 7/1 (November 2014), 1–12. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037887
• Gervais, Will M. - Norenzayan, Ara. “Like a Camera in the Sky? Thinking about God Increases Public Self-Awareness and Socially Desirable Responding”. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 48/1 (September 2011), 298–302. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2011.09.006
• Giddens, Anthony. The Consequences of Modernity. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1990.
• Gita Press. Gita Press. Accessed November 26, 2025. http://www.gitapress.org/
• Gupta, Shreya. “Social Media Marketing: Understanding Social Media Algorithms through Business Growth”. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies. 1117–1125, 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-99-0428-0_91
• Hindu Gallery. Hindu Gallery. Accessed November 26, 2025. http://www.hindugallery.com
• Hjarvard, Stig. “The Mediatisation of Religion: Theorising Religion, Media and Social Change”. Culture and Religion 12/2 (June 2011), 119–135. https://doi.org/10.1080/14755610.2011.579719
• Hong, Liangjie - Lalmas, Mounia. Tutorial on Online User Engagement: Metrics and Optimization. In Companion Proceedings of the 2019 World Wide Web Conference, 2019. https://doi.org/10.1145/3308560.3320087
• Indiparambil, Jijo James. “Does Surveillance Intersect with Religious Freedom? The Dialectics of Religious Tolerance and (Re)Proselytism in India Today”. Surveillance & Society 16/4 (December 2018), 432–445. https://doi.org/10.24908/ss.v16i4.6633
• Janzen, Ryan - Mann, Steve. “Veillance Flux, Vixels, Veillons: An Information-Bearing Extramissive Formulation of Sensing, to Measure Surveillance and Sousveillance”. IEEE Canadian Conf. Electrical and Computer Engineering 6 (May 2014), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1109/ccece.2014.6901060
• Jay, Martin. “Visual Parrhesia?: Foucault and the Truth of the Gaze”. A Time for the Humanities: Futurity and the Limits of Autonomy. ed. James J. Bono. 45–58. New York: Fordham University Press, 2008. Online edn, Fordham Scholarship Online, 2011. https://doi.org/10.5422/fso/9780823229192.003.0004
• Kanaujiya, Ashok Kumar - Tiwari, Vineet. “Addressing Public Health Challenges at Kumbh Mela 2025 in India: An FMEA-Based Resource Management Framework”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences India Section a Physical Sciences 95/2 (March 2025), 229–239. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40010-025-00921-2
• Kanojia, Sanjay. India-Religion-Hindu (Photograph, 2014). Getty Images. Access 3 March 2025. https://www.gettyimages.in/detail/news-photo/indian-hindu-devotees-perform-pind-daan-rituals-for-the-news-photo/456009314?adppopup=true.
• Karori, James Kariuki. “Integration between Spirituality and Psychology in the Transformation of Body, Mind, and Soul of the Human Person with an Encounter with the Divine”. Journal of Philosophy and Religion (JPR) 3/1 (April 2024), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.51317/jpr.v3i1.493
• Kısakol, Mustafa. Hindu Asketizmi ve Kurtuluş Sürecindeki Rolü. Çorum: Hitit Üniversitesi, Lisansüstü Eğitim Enstitüsü, Doktora Tezi, 2025.
• Laurin, Kristin - Plaks, Jason E. “Religion and Punishment”. Social Psychological and Personality Science 5/7 (May 2014), 835–843. https://doi.org/10.1177/1948550614534698
• Long, Jeffery D., et al. “Hinduism and Tribal Religions”. Encyclopedia of Indian Religions. ed. Arvind Sharma. Accessed 10 January 2026. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-024-1188-1
• Lyon, David. “Surveillance and the Eye of God”. Studies in Christian Ethics 27/1 (January 2014), 21–32. https://doi.org/10.1177/0953946813509334
• Lyon, David. Surveillance as Social Sorting: Privacy, Risk, and Digital Discrimination. London: Routledge, 2003. http://ci.nii.ac.jp/ncid/BA59856855
• Malipeddi, Saketh et al. “Relaxed Alertness in Novice and Advanced Meditators – A Neurophysiological and Psychological Study of Isha Yoga Practices”. Mindfulness 15/11 (November 2024), 2840–2859. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-024-02466-8
• Mallapragada, Madhavi. “Desktop Deities: Hindu Temples, Online Cultures and the Politics of Remediation”. South Asian Popular Culture 8/2 (July 2010), 109–121. https://doi.org/10.1080/14746681003797955
• Manokha, Ivan. “Surveillance, Panopticism, and Self-Discipline in the Digital Age”. Surveillance & Society 16/2 (July 2018), 219–237. https://doi.org/10.24908/ss.v16i2.8346
• McClure, Paul K. “Tinkering with Technology and Religion in the Digital Age: The Effects of Internet Use on Religious Belief, Behavior, and Belonging”. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion 56/3 (2017), 481–497. https://doi.org/10.1111/jssr.12365
• Misra, Nityananda. Kumbha: The Traditionally Modern Mela. New Delhi: Bloomsbury Publishing India Pvt. Ltd, 2019.
• Mobile Sutra. 2025. “Temple Kiosk – Temple Management Software in India”. Accessed November 26, 2025. https://www.mobilesutra.com/templekiosk.php
• Modi, Narendra. Blessed to take a divine Snan at Maha Kumbh, praying for peace, wisdom, and harmony for all (Photograph, 2025). Instagram. 5 February 2025. Access 15 February 2025. https://www.instagram.com/p/DFrq5o1sr0G/?img_index=1
• Monahan, Torin - Wood, David Murakami. “Introduction: Surveillance Studies as a Transdisciplinary Endeavor”. SSRN Electronic Journal (July 2018). https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3844154
• Mukundananda, Swami. 2025. Bhagavad Gita: The Song of God. Accessed November 25, 2025. https://www.holy-bhagavad-gita.org
• Mushiga, Tomoka. “Authorisation by Using ‘the Past’: The Development of the Gayā Pilgrimage Programme”. Indian Historical Review 47/1 (May 2020), 54–83. https://doi.org/10.1177/0376983620922430
• NDTV. “‘I’d Wake Up at Midnight...’: ‘IIT Baba’ Abhey Singh Shares a Traumatic Past”. NDTV. Access 3 April 2025. https://www.ndtv.com
• News Track India Desk. “From 1954 to 2025, Major Stampedes That Kumbh Mela Witnessed”. India Today. Access 20 February 2025. https://www.indiatoday.in/india/story/maha-kumbh-mela-stampede-up-prayagraj-stampede-injury-2671695-2025-01-29
• P. S. Aithal – S. Ramanathan. “How Sanathana Dharma—the Concept and Philosophy of Indian Ancient Social System Supported Scientific, Religionless, Casteless, Ideal Society for Upholding Sustainable Humanity”. Poornaprajna International Journal of Philosophy & Languages 1/1 (2024), 112–135. http://poornaprajnapublication.com/index.php/pijpl/article/view/13
• Paunksnis, Šarūnas. “India Digitalized: Surveillance, Platformization, and Digital Labour in India”. Inter-Asia Cultural Studies 24/2 (April 2023), 297–310. https://doi.org/10.1080/14649373.2023.2182942
• Rees, Anthony et al. “The Surveillance of Racing Cyclists in Training: A Bourdieusian Perspective”. Surveillance & Society 11/4 (December 2013), 466–480. https://doi.org/10.24908/ss.v11i4.4729
• Reichel, Hanna. “From Sovereignty to Omniscience: Digital Theology as Political Theology of the Digital”. Cursor_ Zeitschrift für explorative Theologie (2021). Accessed 10 September 2025. https://doi.org/10.21428/fb61f6aa.b32f9903
• Rocha, Ian Christopher N. et al. “Kumbh Mela Religious Gathering as a Massive Superspreading Event: Potential Culprit for the Exponential Surge of COVID-19 Cases in India”. American Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 105/4 (August 2021), 868–871. https://doi.org/10.4269/ajtmh.21-0601
• Sadhasivam, Senthilkumar et al. “Isha Yoga Practices and Participation in Samyama Program Are Associated with Reduced HbA1C and Systemic Inflammation, Improved Lipid Profile, and Short-Term and Sustained Improvement in Mental Health: A Prospective Observational Study of Meditators”. Frontiers in Psychology 12 (May 2021), 659667. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.659667
• Saeed, Sadia. “Religion, Classification Struggles, and the State’s Exercise of Symbolic Power”. Theory and Society 50/2 (September 2020), 255–281. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11186-020-09415-z
• Safronov, Eduard. “Transformation of Capitalism in the 21st Century: ‘Surveillance Capitalism’ Concept by Shoshana Zuboff”. Sotsiologicheskie Issledovaniya 4 (April 2021), 165–172. https://doi.org/10.31857/s013216250010848-5
• Schlieter, Jens. “‘ … for They Know Not What They Do’? Religion, Religions and Ethics as Conceptualized in Ara Norenzayan’sBig Gods: How Religion Transformed Cooperation and Conflict (2013)”. Religion 44/4 (July 2014), 649–657. https://doi.org/10.1080/0048721x.2014.937064
• Sekulovski, Jordanco. “The Panopticon Factor: Privacy and Surveillance in the Digital Age”. Project Innovative Ethics 1/9 (March 2016), 61–76. https://philpapers.org/archive/SEKTPF.pdf
• Serdar, Meryem. “Transformation of the Surveillance Society from Panopticon to Omnipticon: The Case of Black Mirror’s Episode ‘Nosedive’”. OPUS Toplum Araştırmaları Dergisi 20/53 (May 2023), 396–409. https://doi.org/10.26466/opusjsr.1253893
• Sharma, Ashutosh. “How Poor Planning, Mismanagement, and a Culture of VIP Entitlement Led to the Deadly Stampede at the Maha Kumbh”. Frontline. Access 2 February 2025. https://frontline.thehindu.com/news/prayagraj-stampede-maha-kumbh-tragedy-2025-mela-uttar- pradesh-sangam-vip-vs-pilgrims/article69159063.ece
• Sharma, Mansi. “Mauni Amavasya 2025: Date, Timings, Puja Rituals and Significance of Magha Amavasya”. The Times of India. Access 5 February 2025. https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/religion/rituals-puja/mauni-amavasya-2025-date-time-rituals-and- significance-of-magha-amavasya/articleshow/117619178.cms
• Shri Kashi Vishwanath Temple Trust. 2025. “Live Darshan”. Accessed November 26, 2025. https://shrikashivishwanath.org/online/live_darshan
• Singh, Anjanik. “Mythology of Moksha (मोक्ष) at Gaya”. Medium. Access 1 March 2025. https://medium.com/@anjaniksing/mythology-of-moksha
• Sjöstedt-Hughes, Peter. “Pantheism: One and All”. Philosophical Psychology 38/7 (2025), 1–26. https://doi.org/10.1080/09515089.2025.2499627
• Soler, Montserrat. “God Punishes, but It Depends Where and Why”. Religion Brain & Behavior 8/3 (June 2017), 315–319. https://doi.org/10.1080/2153599x.2017.1302980
• Sri Sathya Sai International Organisation. 2025. “Home Page”. Accessed November 26, 2025. https://www.sathyasai.org
• Stoddart, Eric. “(In)Visibility Before Privacy: A Theological Ethics of Surveillance as Social Sorting”. Studies in Christian Ethics 27/1 (January 2014), 33–49. https://doi.org/10.1177/0953946813509335
• Terzioğlu, Elifnur. “Digital Panopticon Dilemmas: A Study on Contact Tracing Apps Carried out by the Ministry of Health”. Journal of Economy Culture and Society 0/0 (November 2023), 0. https://doi.org/10.26650/jecs2023-1256957
• The Garuda Purāṇa. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass Publishers, 1957.
• The Mahābhārata of Vyasa. New Delhi: Manohar Publishers & Distributors, 2023.
• This_is_last_time_sg (@this_is_last_time_sg). “Sadhguru Next Mahakumbh in 2169 after 144 Years”. YouTube Shorts. Access 18 June 2025. https://www.youtube.com/shorts/sFPYRq_7Nns
• Thomas, Jisa Ann et al. “Watching and Being Watched: Power, Surveillance and Agency Within the Devadasi System”. Journal of Dharma 50/1 (2025). https://dvkjournals.in/index.php/jd/article/view/4853
• Thomassen, Einar. “Are Gods Really Moral Monitors? Some Comments on Ara Norenzayan’s Big Godsby a Historian of Religions”. Religion 44/4 (July 2014), 667–673. https://doi.org/10.1080/0048721x.2014.937074
• Vaid, Dharvi. “India: PM Narendra Modi Takes Holy Dip at Maha Kumbh Mela”. MSN. Access 30 March 2025. https://www.dw.com/en/india-pm-narendra-modi-takes-holy-dip-at-maha-kumbh-mel a/a-71508878
• Wang, Kenneth T. et al. “Attitudes Toward Religion Scale: Development and Initial Psychometric Evaluation among Chinese College Students”. Journal of Beliefs and Values 40/1 (August 2018), 104–121. https://doi.org/10.1080/13617672.2018.1488482
• Williams, Rhys H. et al. “‘Dare to Be Different’: How Religious Groups Frame and Enact Appropriate Sexuality and Gender Norms Among Young Adults”. Sociological Studies of Children and Youth. 1–22. Emerald Publishing Limited, 2017. https://doi.org/10.1108/s1537-466120170000023001
• Xing, Bo - Lin, Zhangxi. “The Impact of Search Engine Optimization on Online Advertising Market”. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Electronic Commerce: The New e-Commerce—Innovations for Conquering Current Barriers, Obstacles and Limitations to Conducting Successful Business on the Internet. 519–529. New York, NY: Association for Computing Machinery, 2006. https://doi.org/10.1145/1151454.1151531
• Yilmaz, Ihsan et al. Religious Populism, Cyberspace and Digital Authoritarianism in Asia: India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Pakistan, and Turkey. European Center for Populism Studies (ECPS), 2022. https://doi.org/10.55271/rp0001
• Yogi Adityanath Office (@myogioffice). “Maha Kumbh Mela Festival in Prayagraj, India”. Twitter. Access 12 September 2025. https://x.com/myogioffice/status/1885345769160356322/photo/1