Çok Boyutlu Bir Deneyim Olarak Acı: Beden ve Zihinden Toplumsal Yaklaşıma

Öz

Bu çalışma, acının yalnızca fizyolojik bir deneyim olarak ele alınmasının yetersiz olduğunu, onun aynı zamanda öznel ve sosyal bir olgu olarak da değerlendirilmesi gerektiğini savunmaktadır. Araştırmanın temel amacı, acının tanımlanmasına yönelik objektif, subjektif ve sosyal yaklaşımları karşılaştırmalı biçimde analiz ederek daha bütüncül, kapsayıcı ve adil bir anlayış geliştirmektir. Literatür taraması yöntemiyle yürütülen çalışmada felsefi metinler, tıbbi araştırmalar, sosyolojik incelemeler ve güncel tanımlar temel alınarak kavramsal bir analiz gerçekleştirilmiştir. Veriler betimsel analiz yoluyla değerlendirilmiş; Uluslararası Acı Araştırmaları Derneğinin (IASP) tanımı ve bu tanıma yöneltilen eleştiriler ayrıntılı biçimde incelenmiştir. Bulgular, mevcut objektif tanımların acının yalnızca biyolojik yönünü merkeze aldığını, bu nedenle de bireyin yaşadığı acının psikolojik, etik ve toplumsal boyutlarını dışladığını ortaya koymaktadır. Oysaki acı, yalnızca ölçülebilir fiziksel belirtilerle sınırlı değildir; aynı zamanda bireyin duygusal durumu, toplumsal konumu, kültürel geçmişi ve yaşadığı çevresel koşullar tarafından da şekillenir. Bu nedenle, yalnızca biyomedikal verilere dayalı tanımlar, özellikle çocuklar, yaşlılar, engelliler ya da marjinal topluluklar gibi kırılgan grupların acısını görünmez kılabilir. Çalışma, acının doğru ve etik bir biçimde değerlendirilmesi için öznel beyanların ve toplumsal bağlamların mutlaka hesaba katılması gerektiğini vurgulamakta; bireysel deneyim ile toplumsal yapılar arasındaki ilişkiyi kuran çok boyutlu ve disiplinlerarası yaklaşımların geliştirilmesini önermektedir.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Acı Tanımı
• Siyaset Felsefesi
• Beden Sosyolojisi
• Etik
• Toplumsal Acı

Pain as a Multidimensional Experience: From Body and Mind to Society

Öz

This study argues that pain should be understood not only as a physiological or psychological phenomenon but as a multidimensional experience encompassing the social dimension. The aim of the research is to comparatively analyze objective, subjective, and social approaches to the definition of pain, contributing to a more inclusive conceptualization. The study was conducted through literature review, analyzing philosophical texts, medical studies, sociological insights, and contemporary definitions. Data were evaluated using descriptive analysis, with a particular focus on critiques of the International Association for the Study of Pain (IASP) definition. The main finding reveals that current objective definitions center primarily on the biological aspects of pain, overlooking its psychological, ethical, and social dimensions. The research demonstrates that pain cannot be properly evaluated when subjective expressions and social contexts are ignored. In conclusion, the paper advocates for the development of comprehensive approache that recognize the multidimensional nature of pain and its entanglement with individual experience and societal structures.

Anahtar Kelimeler

• Definition of Pain
• Political Philosophy
• Sociology of the Body
• Ethics
• Social Pain

Kaynakça

1. Abd-Elsayed, A., & Deer, T. R. (2019). Pain: A review guide. Springer.
2. Ahles, T. A., Blanchard, E. B., & Ruckdeschel, J. C. (1983). The multidimensional nature of cancer pain. *Pain*, *17*(3), 277–288.
3. Aldrich, S., & Eccleston, C. (2000). Making sense of everyday pain. Social Science & Medicine, 50(11), 1631–1641.
4. Anand, K. J. S. (2017). Defining pain in newborns: Need for a uniform taxonomy. Acta Paediatrica, 106(9), 1438–1444.
5. Anand, K. J., & Craig, K. D. (1996). New perspectives on the definition of pain. Pain, 67(1), 3–6.
6. Anderson, E., & White, A. (2018). Sport, theory and social problems: A critical introduction (2nd ed.). Routledge.
7. Arendt, H. (1958). The human condition. University of Chicago Press.
8. Argyle, M. (1987). The psychology of happiness. Routledge.

9. Aydede, M. (2019). Definitional issues in pain science: A critical review. The Monist, 102(2), 233–250. https://doi.org/10.1093/monist/onz009
10. Bain, K. (2011). Does pain have to hurt?. Australasian Journal of Philosophy, 89(2), 335–341. https://doi.org/10.1080/00048402.2010.540889
11. Bain, A. (2011). The senses and the intellect (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press.
12. Bakan, D. (1968). Disease, pain, and sacrifice: Toward a psychology of suffering. Beacon Press. Baumeister, R. F. (1990). Suicide as escape from self. Psychological Review, 97(1), 90–113.
13. Bendelow, G. (1993). Pain perceptions, emotions and gender. Sociology of Health & Illness, 15(3), 273–294. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.ep11357450
14. Bendelow, G., & Williams, S. J. (1995). Transcending the dualisms: Towards a sociology of pain. Sociology of Health & Illness, 17(2), 139–165. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.ep10933376
15. Bishop, G. H. (1946). Pain: Its physiology and significance. Science, 103(2675), 389–393.
16. Biro, D. (2010). The language of pain: Finding words, compassion, and relief. W. W. Norton & Company.
17. Bizumic, B., Reynolds, K. J., Turner, J. C., Bromhead, D., & Subasic, E. (2009). The role of the group in individual functioning: School identification and the psychological well-being of staff and students. Applied Psychology: An International Review, 58(1), 171–192.
18. Blitz, C. L., & Dinnerstein, A. J. (1971). Cultural factors in the expression of pain. International Journal of Psychiatry, 10(4), 356–362.
19. Bodfish, James W., V. Nicholas Harper, John R. Deacon, and Frank J. Symons. “Identifying Pain Indicators for Individuals with Severe Developmental Disabilities.” Clinical Journal of Pain 22, no. 5 (2006): 398–403.
20. Bolger, M. (1999). Experiencing emotional pain: Loss of self and feeling broken. Journal of Loss and Trauma, 4(3), 227–239.
21. Bonica, J. J. (1953). The Management of Pain. Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger.
22. Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. New York: Basic Books.
23. Brand, P., & Yancey, P. (1997). The gift of pain: Why we hurt and what we can do about it. Zondervan.
24. Brook, A. T., Garcia, J., & Fleming, M. (2008). The effects of multiple identities on psychological well-being. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 34(12), 1588–1600.
25. Bueno-Gomez, N. (2017). Conceptualizing pain: A review and a reconsideration of the neurophilosophy of pain. Philosophy, Ethics, and Humanities in Medicine, 12(7), 1–11.
26. Buss, A. H., & Portnoy, N. W. (1967). Pain tolerance and group identification. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 6(1), 106–108.
27. Cacioppo, J. T., Hawkley, L. C., & Berntson, G. G. (2003). The anatomy of loneliness. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 12(3), 71–74.
28. Carvalho, Ana Lúcia, et al. “Ethical Issues in Pain and Palliative Care.” Brazilian Journal of Anesthesiology 68, no. 3 (2018): 205–211.
29. Cassell, E. J. (1998). The nature of suffering and the goals of medicine. The New England Journal of Medicine, 306(11), 639–645. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198203183061104
30. Cervero, F. (1999). Visceral pain: mechanisms of perception. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, 6(1), 345–355.
31. Cervero, F. (2009). Understanding pain: Exploring the perception of pain. MIT Press.
32. Cleary, J., Husain, A., & Maurer, M. (2016). The ethical imperative to treat pain in vulnerable populations: A global health perspective. Journal of Pain & Palliative Care Pharmacotherapy, 30(4), 324–327. https://doi.org/10.1080/15360288.2016.1247144
33. Cole, B. E. (2002). Pain management: classifying, understanding, and treating pain. Hospital Physician, 38(6), 23–30.
34. Collier, J. (2018). Pain: A very short introduction. Oxford University Press.
35. Collier, R. (2018). The culture of pain. Canadian Medical Association Journal, 190(8), E244.
36. Craig, K. D. (2018). A social communication model of pain. In Handbook of Pain and Palliative Care (2nd ed., pp. 41–58). Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-76573-0_3
37. Craig, K. D., & Fashler, S. R. (2014). Social Influences, Communication and Assessment. In M. D. Sullivan (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Pain Theory (pp. 335–353). Oxford University Press.
38. Cutter, M. (2017). The Illustrated Slave: Empathy, Graphic Narrative, and the Visual Culture of the Transatlantic Abolition Movement. University of Virginia Press.
39. De Ruddere, L. (2021). Social exclusion and the underestimation of pain. The Journal of Pain, 22(5), 521–532. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpain.2020.10.003
40. Dekkers, W. (2017). The meaning of pain: A phenomenological–hermeneutical approach. Medicine, Health Care and Philosophy, 20(1), 125–136. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11019-016-9724-1
41. Demirkol, M. E., Kaya, M. C., & Zelyurt, H. (2019). Psikolojik acının tanımlanması: Psikolojik acı ölçeği Türkçe formunun geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. Klinik Psikiyatri Dergisi, 22(1), 46–55. https://doi.org/10.5505/kpd.2019.19460
42. Descartes, René. Meditations on First Philosophy. Translated by John Cottingham. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996.
43. Descartes, René. The Passions of the Soul. Translated by Stephen Voss. Indianapolis: Hackett, 1989.
44. DeWall, C. N., & Baumeister, R. F. (2006). Alone but feeling no pain: Effects of social exclusion on physical pain tolerance and pain threshold, affective forecasting, and interpersonal empathy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 91(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.91.1.1
45. DeWall, C. N., MacDonald, G., Webster, G. D., Masten, C. L., Baumeister, R. F., Powell, C., ... & Eisenberger, N. I. (2010). Acetaminophen reduces social pain: Behavioral and neural evidence. Psychological Science, 21(7), 931–937. https://doi.org/10.1177/0956797610374741
46. Doleys, D. M. (2014). Pain: Dynamics and complex treatment needs. Psychological Injury and Law, 7(2), 141–150.
47. Dugré, J. R., Dumais, A., Bitar, N., & Potvin, S. (2019). Suicide and suicidal behaviors in personality disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 140(5), 388–398. https://doi.org/10.1111/acps.13099
48. Dworkin, R. H., Turk, D. C., Farrar, J. T., Haythornthwaite, J. A., Jensen, M. P., Katz, N. P., ... & Witter, J. (2005). Core outcome measures for chronic pain clinical trials: IMMPACT recommendations. Pain, 113(1–2), 9–19. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pain.2004.09.012
49. Eisenberger, N. I. (2015). Social pain and the brain: Controversies, questions, and where to go from here. Annual Review of Psychology, 66, 601–629. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-psych-010213-115146
50. Eisenberger, N. I. (2012a). The pain of social disconnection: Examining the shared neural underpinnings of physical and social pain. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 13(6), 421–434. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn3231
51. Eisenberger, N. I. (2012b). The neural bases of social pain: Evidence for shared representations with physical pain. Psychosomatic Medicine, 74(2), 126–135. https://doi.org/10.1097/PSY.0b013e3182464dd1
52. Eisenberger, N. I., Lieberman, M. D., & Williams, K. D. (2003). Does rejection hurt? An fMRI study of social exclusion. Science, 302(5643), 290–292. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1089134
53. Ferrell, Betty R., Mary Eberts, Margo McCaffery, and Marcia Grant. “Ethical Dilemmas in Pain Management.” Pain Management Nursing 2, no. 1 (2001): 30–36.
54. Fine, P. G. (1993). The biological basis of pain. In Practical Management of Pain (pp. 3–15). Mosby-Year Book.
55. Frankl, V. E. (1963). Man's search for meaning: An introduction to logotherapy. Beacon Press. Geniusas, S. (2020). The origins of pain: A phenomenological approach. Continental Philosophy Review, 53(2), 251–270.
56. Gilam, G., Gross, J. J., & Wager, T. D. (2020). What is the relationship between pain and emotion? Bridging constructs and communities. Neuron, 107(1), 17–21.
57. Goldberg, D. S., & McGee, S. J. (2011). Pain as a global public health priority. BMC Public Health, 11, 770. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-2458-11-770
58. Gould III, G. M. (2007). Pain: A political history. University of Chicago Press.
59. Gruber, T. R. (1993). A translation approach to portable ontology specifications. Knowledge Acquisition, 5(2), 199–220. https://doi.org/10.1006/knac.1993.1008
60. Hadjistavropoulos, T., Craig, K. D., Duck, S., Cano, A., Goubert, L., Jackson, P. L., ... & Vervoort, T. (2011). A biopsychosocial formulation of pain communication. Psychological Bulletin, 137(6), 910-939. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0023876
61. Hall, J. E. (2008). Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology (12th ed.). Philadelphia, PA: Saunders/Elsevier.
62. Herman, J. L. (1992). Trauma and recovery: The aftermath of violence—from domestic abuse to political terror. Basic Books.
63. IASP Task Force on Taxonomy. “Part III: Pain Terms, A Current List with Definitions and Notes on Usage.” In Classification of Chronic Pain, edited by H. Merskey and N. Bogduk, 209–214. Seattle: IASP Press, 1994.
64. Iyer, A., Jetten, J., Tsivrikos, D., Postmes, T., & Haslam, S. A. (2009). The more (and the more compatible) the merrier: Multiple group memberships and identity compatibility as predictors of adjustment after life transitions. British Journal of Social Psychology, 48(4), 707–733.
65. Jackson, J. E. (2011a). The embodied soul: A genealogical politics of disability. In J. C. Kaufman & D. K. Snyder (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Psychology and Spirituality (pp. 357–374). Oxford University Press.
66. Jackson, J. E. (2011b). Pain and bodies: Two ethnographies of the suffering self. In A. D. Good, B. J. Good, & S. T. DelVecchio Good (Eds.), A reader in medical anthropology: Theoretical trajectories, emergent realities (pp. 370–380). Wiley-Blackwell.
67. James, W. (1890). The principles of psychology. New York: Henry Holt.
68. Johnson, Mark. The Body in the Mind: The Bodily Basis of Meaning, Imagination, and Reason. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987.
69. Joiner, T. E., Jr., Rudd, M. D., & Rajab, M. H. (2001). Optimism, hopelessness, and suicidality: A longitudinal investigation. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69(3), 411–419.
70. Kanfer, F. H., & Goldfoot, D. A. (1966). The communication of pain: An experimental study. Journal of Health and Human Behavior, 7(1), 34–40.
71. Kaniasty, K. (2012). Predicting social psychological well-being following trauma: The role of postdisaster social support. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 4(1), 22–33.
72. Käll, L. F. (2013). Intercorporeality and social suffering. Continental Philosophy Review, 46(2), 215–229. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11007-012-9244-2
73. Kiecolt-Glaser, J. K., Garner, W., Speicher, C. E., Penn, G. M., Holliday, J. E., & Glaser, R. (1984). Psychosocial modifiers of immunocompetence in medical students. Psychosomatic Medicine, 46(1), 7–14.
74. Klein, R. (2007). Medicine and the management of pain: Ethics and evidence. In S. Crowley (Ed.), Philosophy and Medicine (Vol. 86, pp. 55–67). Springer.
75. Klugman, M. (2009). Sport and the construction of masculinity. Journal of Men’s Studies, 17(2), 104–122.
76. Kovacs, M., Brown, R. T., & Weissman, M. M. (1975). The psychosocial risk factors of suicidal behavior. Archives of General Psychiatry, 32(10), 1143–1149.
77. Kono, T. (2023). Phenomenology of pain: Toward an understanding of its ambivalence. Philosophy, 98(1), 55–79.
78. Kross, E., Berman, M. G., Mischel, W., Smith, E. E., & Wager, T. D. (2011). Social rejection shares somatosensory representations with physical pain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(15), 6270–6275. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1102693108
79. Kunz, M., Lautenbacher, S., LeBlanc, N., & Rainville, P. (2020). Are facial responses to pain assessed reliably? Pain, 161(9), 2061–2073.
80. Leder, Drew. “Toward a Phenomenology of Pain.” The Review of Existential Psychiatry, 255–266 (1984).
81. Leventhal, H., Brown, D., Shacham, S., & Engquist, G. (1979). Effects of preparatory information about sensations, threat of pain, and attention on cold pressor distress. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 37(5), 688–714.
82. Lewis, T. (1938). Pain. London: Macmillan.
83. Loeser, J. D. (2000). Pain and suffering. Clinical Journal of Pain, 16(2), S2–S6.
84. Loeser, J. D., & Melzack, R. (1999). Pain: An overview. In P. D. Wall & R. Melzack (Eds.), Textbook of pain (4th ed., pp. 3–16). Churchill Livingstone.
85. Lynch, J. J. (1979). The broken heart: The medical consequences of loneliness. Basic Books.
86. MacDonald, G., & Jensen-Campbell, L. A. (2011). Social pain: Neuropsychological and health implications of loss and exclusion. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
87. MacDonald, G., & Leary, M. R. (2005). Why does social exclusion hurt? The relationship between social and physical pain. Psychological Bulletin, 131(2), 202–223. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.131.2.202
88. MacDonald, G., Kingsbury, R., & Shaw, S. (2005). Adding Insult to Injury: Social Pain Theory and Response to Social Exclusion. In K. D. Williams, J. P. Forgas, & W. von Hippel (Eds.), The social outcast: Ostracism, social exclusion, rejection, and bullying (pp. 77–90). Psychology Press.
89. McCaffery, M. (1968). Nursing practice theories related to cognition, bodily pain, and man-environment interactions. University of California at Los Angeles.
90. Mee, S., Bunney, B. G., & Potkin, S. G. (2006). The neurobiology of suicide and suicidal behavior. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 29(1), 281–306.
91. Meldrum, M. L. (2003). A capsule history of pain management. Journal of the American Medical Association, 290(18), 2470–2475.
92. Melzack, R. (1973). The puzzle of pain. New York: Basic Books.
93. Melzack, R. (1996). Pain and the neuromatrix in the brain. Journal of Dental Education, 62(10), 882–889.
94. Melzack, R., & Wall, P. D. (1983). The challenge of pain (1st ed.). London: Penguin Books.
95. Melzack, R., & Torgerson, W. S. (1971). On the language of pain. Anesthesiology, 34(1), 50–59.
96. Merskey, H. (1991). The definition of pain. Pain, Suppl. 3, S152–S153.
97. Morris, David B. The Culture of Pain. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991.
98. Murinson, B. B., Agarwal, A. K., & Haythornthwaite, J. A. (2008). Cognitive expertise, emotional development, and reflective capacity: Clinical skills for improved pain care. Journal of Pain, 9(11), 975–983.
99. Myers, D. G. (1992). The pursuit of happiness: Who is happy—and why. William Morrow and Co. Noordenbos, W. (1959). Pain: Problems pertaining to the transmission of nerve impulses which give rise to pain. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
100. Olivier, B. “The Biology of Pain.” Frontiers in Bioscience 13 (2008): 2580–2593.
101. Onoda, K., Okamoto, Y., Nakashima, K., Nittono, H., Ura, M., & Yamawaki, S. (2009). Decreased ventral anterior cingulate cortex activity is associated with reduced social pain during emotional support. Social Neuroscience, 4(5), 443–454. https://doi.org/10.1080/17470910801998950
102. Osmond, H., Mullaly, D., & Bisbee, M. (1984). The unbearable pain of being: Psychological pain and suicidal behavior. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 14(2), 98–109.
103. Osterweis, M., Kleinman, A., & Mechanic, D. (Eds.). (1987). Pain and disability: Clinical, behavioral, and public policy perspectives. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.
104. Orbach, I., Mikulincer, M., Sirota, P., & Gilboa-Schechtman, E. (2003). Mental pain: A multidimensional operationalization and definition. Suicide and Life-Threatening Behavior, 33(3), 219–230.
105. Peacock, Shelley, and Smita Patel. “Cultural Influences on Pain.” Reviews in Pain 1, no. 2 (2008): 6–9.
106. Pitts, N. (1994). Pain: Its meaning and management in the 21st century. London: Butterworth-Heinemann.
107. Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2016). Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 136, 1–29.
108. Potter, P. A., Perry, A. G., Stockert, P. A., & Hall, A. M. (2020). Fundamentals of nursing (10th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Elsevier.
109. Price, J. (2015). The Bodymind Problem and the Possibilities of Pain. Hypatia, 30(1), 268–284. https://doi.org/10.1111/hypa.12127
110. Rey, R. (1998). The history of pain (L. G. Ackerman & E. B. Ackerman, Trans.). Harvard University Press. (Original work published 1993)
111. Riva, P., Wirth, J. H., & Williams, K. D. (2014). The consequences of pain: The social and physical pain overlap. In M. L. Cooper & R. J. Larsen (Eds.), APA handbook of emotion, emotion regulation, and well-being (Vol. 3, pp. 295–310). American Psychological Association.
112. Sabatowski, R., Schäfer, D., Kasper, S. M., Radbruch, L., & Grond, S. (2004). Pain treatment: a historical overview. Current Opinion in Anaesthesiology, 17(5), 479–484.
113. Sani, F., Herrera, M., Wakefield, J. R. H., Boroch, O., & Gulyas, C. (2012). Comparing social contact and group identification as predictors of mental health. The British Journal of Social Psychology, 51(4), 781–790.
114. Scarry, E. (1985). The body in pain: The making and unmaking of the world. Oxford University Press. Schleifer, R. (2014). Pain and suffering in history, literature, and philosophy. Routledge.
115. Sessle, B. J. (2012). The pain crisis: What it is and what can be done. Pain Research and Treatment, 2012, Article ID 703947. https://doi.org/10.1155/2012/703947
116. Shneidman, E. S. (1996). The suicidal mind. Oxford University Press.
117. Siebers, T. (2010). Disability aesthetics. University of Michigan Press.
118. Skevington, Suzanne M., and Victoria L. Mason. “Social Influences on Pain.” In Pain: Psychological Perspectives, edited by T. Hadjistavropoulos and K. D. Craig, 78–100. New York: Psychology Press, 2012.
119. Sternbach, R. A., & Tursky, B. (1965). Ethnic differences among housewives in psychophysical and skin potential responses to electrical stimulation. Psychophysiology, 1(3), 241–246.
120. Stevens, Bonnie J. “Challenges in Understanding Pain in Infants and Children.” Pain Reports 6, no. 1 (2021): e888.
121. Sturgeon, J. A., & Zautra, A. J. (2016). Social pain and physical pain: Shared paths to resilience. Pain Management, 6(1), 63–74. https://doi.org/10.2217/pmt.15.57
122. Sullivan, Mark D. “Pain Relief as a Human Right.” Pain 89, no. 2–3 (2001): 205–207.
123. Swieboda, P., Filip, R., Prystupa, A., & Drozd, M. (2013). Assessment of pain: types, mechanism and treatment. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine, 20(1), 2–7.
124. Tesarz, J., Eich, W., Treede, R.-D., & Gerhardt, A. (2012). Altered pressure pain thresholds and increased wind-up pain in male patients with chronic low back pain: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Pain, 153(3), 636–645.
125. Thienhaus, O., & Cole, B. E. (2001). Classification of pain. Pain Medicine, 2(2), 105–107.
126. Thoits, P. A. (2011). Mechanisms linking social ties and support to physical and mental health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 52(2), 145–161.
127. Thompson, M. J. (2022). Pain, oppression, and the politics of embodiment. Theory & Event, 25(2), 430–457. https://doi.org/10.1353/tae.2022.0020
128. Tossani, E. (2013). The concept of mental pain. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 82(2), 67–73.
129. Turk, D. C., & Melzack, R. (Eds.). (2011). Handbook of Pain Assessment (3rd ed.). Guilford Press.
130. Van Heeringen, K., Bijttebier, S., & Godfrin, K. (2010). Suicidal brains: A review of functional and structural brain studies in association with suicidal behavior and vulnerability. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 34(5), 691–698.
131. Verrocchio, M. C., Carrozzino, D., Marchetti, D., Andreasson, K., Fulcheri, M., & Bech, P. (2022). Mental pain: A review of clinical assessment tools. Clinical Neuropsychiatry, 19(1), 18–26. https://doi.org/10.36131/cns.v19i1.2273
132. Wager, T. D., Atlas, L. Y., Lindquist, M. A., Roy, M., Woo, C.-W., & Kross, E. (2013). An fMRI-based neurologic signature of physical pain. New England Journal of Medicine, 368(15), 1388–1397.
133. Way, B. M., Taylor, S. E., & Eisenberger, N. I. (2009). Variation in the μ-opioid receptor gene (OPRM1) is associated with dispositional and neural sensitivity to social rejection. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106(35), 15079–15084. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0812612106
134. Wideman, T. H., Edwards, R. R., Walton, D. M., Martel, M. O., Hudon, A., Seminowicz, D. A., & Seminowicz, D. A. (2019). Rethinking the biopsychosocial model of pain: Understanding the complexity of pain through a systems perspective. Pain, 160(9), 1943–1950.
135. Wilgen, C. P. van, & Keizer, D. (2012). The sensitization model to explain how chronic pain exists without tissue damage. Pain Management, 2(1), 1–6.
136. Williams, Amanda C. de C., and Kenneth D. Craig. “Updating the Definition of Pain.” Pain 157, no. 11 (2016): 240–2423.
137. Williams, A. C. de C., & Craig, K. D. (2016). Updating the definition of pain. Pain, 157(11), 2420–2423. https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000000613
138. Williams, A. C., & Craig, K. D. (2022). Whose pain matters? A critical update to the IASP definition of pain. PAIN, 163(2), e127–e133. https://doi.org/10.1097/j.pain.0000000000002353
139. Williams, S. J., & Coveney, C. (2023). Social suffering and biopolitics: Contemporary perspectives on health inequalities. Sociology of Health & Illness, 45(4), 823–841. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9566.13547
140. Woessner, K. M. (2006). Acute and chronic pain. In Goldman's Cecil Medicine (23rd ed., pp. 219–223). Saunders.
141. Wolf, L. D., & Davis, M. C. (2014). Loneliness, daily pain, and perceptions of interpersonal events in adults with fibromyalgia. Health Psychology, 33(9), 929–937. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000053
142. Wright, R. G. “Teacher-Centered vs. Student-Centered Learning Approaches.” In Cultural and Pedagogical Inquiry, 2011.
143. Zborowski, M. (1952). Cultural components in responses to pain. Journal of Social Issues, 8(4), 16–30. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1952.tb01500.